Our oceans, which cover about 70% of the Earth’s surface, have a reciprocal relationship with global climate and weather patterns. While oceans tend to influence regional and weather conditions around the world, changes in the climate can also have profound impacts on the oceans. This cycle, albeit a relatively simple one, is actually a lot more complex than one could imagine. So, how does climate change affect the ocean? 

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How Does Climate Change Affect the Ocean?

Generally speaking, oceans are dynamic in nature. This massive carbon sink plays crucial and regulatory roles in the Earth’s climate. Oceans are known to absorb most of the solar energy reaching the Earth, and warming of the oceans is generally slower than the atmosphere, resulting in moderate coastal weather with few hot and cold extremes. However, these conditions have begun to change in recent years.

Oceans absorb almost 90% of the extra energy from greenhouse gas effects, and this has resulted in ocean warming at depths of 1,000 metres. This in turn, has led to consequences such as enhanced ocean warming and stratification – where seawater naturally forms stratified layers with lighter waters near the surface and denser waters at greater depth – variability in ocean regimes, and modification of ocean habitats and ecosystems. A 2019 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report revealed that in response to climate change and the concurrent greenhouse warming, coral bleaching and ocean warming events such as marine heat waves are likely to increase, putting a greater strain on the global oceans. 

Furthermore, atmospheric warming has led to the melting of glaciers and land ice, causing rising sea levels, which have led to erosion, saltwater intrusion and destruction of coastal habitats and shorelines. The increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions have also resulted in extreme El Niño events such as sea surface warming, changing ocean circulation patterns and precipitation frequencies. On the other hand, La Niña events have also seen a build-up in recent years, and tend to have complex impacts on weather patterns particularly in the Pacific Ocean. Both El Niño and La Niña events are part of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), where the former brings warming effects while the latter brings significant cooling or changes in winter seasons in the Pacific regions.

Carbon dioxide emissions tend to acidify oceans making aquatic species and marine habitats more vulnerable to declines and damage. This ocean acidification aggravates physiological stresses and reduces growth and survival rates of several marine species. So why is this important?

The global oceans and coastlines provide significant ecosystem services such as marine habitats, carbon sequestration, oxygen production, as well as food and income generation. Salt marshes and mangroves which comprise the coastal ecosystems are key players in carbon sequestration processes. Due to continual deforestation activities taking place in many parts of the globe, the subsequent degradation of these ecosystems releases approximately 1 billion tons of carbon dioxide annually – contributing to 20% of global carbon emissions.

The impacts of rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are already observable in the current environment. With increasing amounts of atmospheric greenhouse gases, coral reefs are at great risk, and this consequently adds strain to food production, coastline protection and other services provided by coral reef ecosystems. In addition, plastic pollution is also known to contribute to ocean warming and threatens marine life. The cumulative impacts of deforestation, agricultural runoff, overexploitation of marine resources, overfishing and more also weaken marine ecosystems of the world.

To surmise, greenhouse warming has complex and perhaps, severe impacts on the ocean than on land. However, it is important to note here, that the biosphere in general, needs to be protected from the consequences of global warming.

What Is Currently Being Done? 

So, what comes next after learning how climate change can affect the ocean? We take action. The worldwide population depends on the oceans and marine ecosystems. The protection, management and conservation of the hydrosphere therefore is important to support the provision of carbon sequestration and other services on which people depend. Studying the oceans is vital to understand anthropogenic climate change. Many organisations such as The World Climate Research Programme (WCRP), World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and many others are actively researching the oceans to better comprehend the ocean-atmosphere linkages and relationships. The WMO in particular also collaborates with the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) to understand the impacts of climate change on marine productivity and fisheries.  

Countries have also started developing policies and implementing sustainable practices which can conserve the oceans and protect fisheries and marine habitats. An example is Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), which protect marine habitats, including regulating human activities and thereby maintaining climate change resilience. Certain strategies like REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) and Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement, enable MPAs with sustainable tools to preserve marine ecologies.

On a larger scale, world leaders at last year’s COP15 summit reached a historic deal which includes a commitment to save 30% of land and water by 2030 (also referred to as ’30 x 30′). While this is certainly a start, there may be some concerns on how this progress would be measured in the coming years. For example, one study highlights certain key findings that need to be viewed in parallel with the 30 x 30 initiative. While 30% of the land on Earth is classified as areas of particular importance for biodiversity protection, in order to reverse the extinction crisis, there needs to be an additional 20% of land that needs to be conserved.

To supplement this, another publication states that conservation of 30% of the land would reduce the extinction crisis by half; this may not meet the standards set by the Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF). Moreover, the 30 x 30 plan isn’t universal – meaning it may not be multi-purpose due to the varying biological wealth and natural habitats that exist in various countries. Based on the ecological wealth of countries, some may need to contribute more to the initiative, while others, say the developing nations could find it easier to achieve the optimal goal. Hence, this warrants a deep dive into the workings of the 30 x 30 strategy.

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The goal is to adopt proper implementation of global strategies that can ensure marine and coastal protection and the conservation of the global oceans in general. With decades of increasing greenhouse emissions, the climate has been responding in many ways to ensure a healthy environment. But there exists a tipping point, which if crossed, will warrant effective countermeasures. 

More than hundred countries across the globe responsible for a majority of these emissions, have made national climate commitments and pledges to curb their impacts on the environment. Building upon the first ever UNFCCC Ocean – Climate Dialogue, notable campaigner and US special climate envoy John Kerry said, “When the world talks about the climate crisis, the ocean crisis must be front and centre in that conversation”. 

With the Paris Agreement and other international agreements in place – such as last year’s COP15 deal, we can definitely say that we are off to a good start. However, much of this progress would require continual updates and revisions to make sure we are on track. By taking certain issues head-on and using nature-based solutions, we can certainly ensure a secure and resilient ecosystem for the years to come. 

This article was originally published on April 22, 2022

The post How Does Climate Change Affect the Ocean? appeared first on Earth.Org.

Many countries around the world are either facing or will likely face the full-scale impacts of climate change. South America, home to the second-largest river and the world’s longest mountain range, exemplifies biological diversity and natural landscapes that breed terrestrial, marine, and aquatic life and creates a diverse environment for living organisms. Yet, the problems that the continent face are multi-fold – from hydrometeorological issues, widespread desertification, and rampant deforestation, to biodiversity loss, many countries are learning to adapt to the changing environment. Here are the top 5 environmental issues in South America.

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5 Environmental Issues in South America

1. Deforestation

Known as one of the biggest environmental issues of our lifetime, the problem of deforestation continues to plague Brazil’s Amazon rainforests. But this region is not the only one facing the consequences of anthropogenic climate change. The Gran Chaco, the continent’s second-largest forest, has been under compounding pressure from deforestation. The semi-arid indigenous forest, which spans more than a million kilometres across Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia, has lost more than one-fifth of its forests (around 140,000 square kilometres or 54,000 square miles) since 1985. Besides the environmental consequences, deforestation in the Gran Chaco region is threatening the livelihood of Indigenous hunter-gatherers. According to the Natural Resources Defence Council, 27 to 43% of the land in Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Ecuador is being affected by the rampant forest loss.

Deforestation is known to amplify climate change by releasing more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, adding pressure on animal and plant species. In the Gran Chaco region in particular, there has been a great reduction in the number of species, including the South American Jaguar and the Screaming Hairy Armadillo.

While several measures are being adopted to curb and solve the issue, there have been numerous groups seeking to map and understand the spatial damage caused by deforestation. 

Project Lanloss, coordinated by the Ca’ Foscari University in Venice, Italy, aims to map the extent of deforestation using satellite imagery and study its impacts on local communities. Dr. Tamar Blickstein, who leads the project, aims to integrate satellite images and people’s opinions in the form of a storytelling narrative, with the hope to raise awareness about deforestation in the Gran Chaco region and further educate local communities. INCLUDE, another project which ended in 2021, funded by the University of Bern in Switzerland, studied the dynamic interactions between technological, environmental, and economic factors and their influence on land use and household decisions in the province of Salta in the Gran Chaco.  

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2. Soil Erosion

Land erosion, partly a direct consequence of deforestation, currently affects more than 60% of South America’s soil and has also begun threatening the food security in the continent. More than 100 million hectares of land have been adversely affected and around 18% of Brazil’s northeastern territory has been degraded. With it, important staple food crops like maize and beans were also compromised. 

The Adapta Sertão initiative, a coalition of organisations and small farmers was created to employ environmental regeneration strategies in the semi-arid Sertão region, one of Brazil’s driest areas. Some of the methods used in this programme include agroforestry systems, cover crops, and improved irrigation and production systems to increase the output of animal feed.

Aside from Brazil, more than half of the land in Argentina, Mexico, and Paraguay is deemed unfit for cultivation. According to José Miguel Torrico, the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) coordinator for Latin America and the Caribbean, the annual cost of land degradation in Latin America and the Caribbean is estimated at $60 billion.

Soil erosion has also been a major threat to Argentina’s landscape and biodiversity. The degradation of Argentina’s landscape has been visible due to intensive agriculture, livestock farming, and drastic changes in land use patterns in the country. According to a 2020 report published by the Ministry of Environment, 100 million hectares out of a total area of 270 million hectares are affected by erosion, and the rates of erosion have increased by approximately 2 million hectares per year. This has been attributed to the expansion of soybean agriculture and overgrazing in many regions. 

In recent years, local bodies and organizations have ramped up efforts to restore and preserve landscapes in the region. One such organisation, the Network of Municipalities for Agroecology (RENAMA), brought together many Argentinian localities and producers to adopt innovative agroecological practices on more than 100,000 hectares of land. This practice includes crop diversification, economical use of biological over chemical inputs, and conservation tillage.

3. Glacial Melting

In several South American countries, glaciers are a crucial source of freshwater used for water consumption, agricultural activities, power generation, and ecosystem conservation. Since the 1980s, the tropical Andes (Chilean and Argentinian Andes) have been retreating, and ice mass has been dropping at alarming rates, with a negative mass balance trend of -0.97 metres of water equivalent annually in the last three decades. This continued melting, along with rising temperatures, poses a serious threat to water security among the Andean population and ecosystems. 

Peru has also lost more than 40% of its glaciers. Lake Palcacocha in the central Peruvian Andes has grown 34 times larges in only four decades, being fed by the melting waters of the Palcaraju ice sheet. 

The region surrounding Lake Palcacocha witnessed a catastrophic flooding event in the 1940s which claimed the lives of 1,800 people in the neighbouring city of Huaraz. According to a study carried out by scientists from Oxford University and the University of Washington, the risks of a similar event occurring again are very high, given the change in geometry of the Palcaraju ice sheet and the increase in greenhouse gas emissions in the recent past. 

The Glaciers and Ecosystems Research National Institute (also known as INAIGEM) and Huaraz Emergency Operations Centre (COER) in Peru have been regularly monitoring the region around Palacocha and have also designed early warning systems to alert the population in case of a potential flooding event. These systems are also designed to educate people about the magnitude of the risk and create signposts around the city to safely guide and evacuate people in the event of a flood.

4. Water Pollution and Water Scarcity

Despite being one of the world’s largest sources of freshwater, parts of South America are dealing with an unprecedented water crisis due to poor or untreated water, wide-scale mismanagement, and overexploitation. 

The nucleus of water pollution in South America is that a large portion of water goes untreated for human consumption and use. To exemplify, polluted waters which enter lakes and rivers along with human and animal waste are transferred to the water systems of many homes. Furthermore, some of the major water bodies in the continent, including the Medellin River in Colombia, Guanabara Bay in Brazil, and Argentina’s Riachuelo River, are continually subjected to large-scale industrial and anthropogenic pollution which contaminates water sources and makes water unsafe for use and consumption.

Another hydrological conundrum faced in some countries is water scarcity. Considered to be a crisis in companion with droughts, water scarcity has troubled parts of Brazil, Chile, Argentina, and Colombia. 

The intense mega-drought in Chile, which began in 2007 and is still ongoing, has led to the loss of livelihoods and biodiversity and has contributed to water and food insecurity across the country. 

The government has introduced certain measures to curb the problems. In the Providencia district of Chile, the government has made plans to replace existing plants along roads with more drought-tolerant plants. To reduce water wastage and combat droughts that have plagued several parts of the city, the Chilean government has also introduced water rationings and has invested in projects to modernise existing water systems. 

The rationing plan consists of a four-tier alert system with public announcements and involves rotating water cuts to different parts of the city. In 2021, Emilia Undurraga, Chile’s former Minister of Agriculture, had also developed plans to restore 1 million hectares of land by 2030. This project, which foresees collaborations with Chile’s private sectors, including agriculture, mining, and energy, not only supports the restoration of native forests but also helps convert some of them into mixed-use types.

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5. Sea Level Rise

One of the World Meteorological Organization’s (WMO) most important “tell-tale” signs of extreme weather events is rising sea levels. Over the last three decades, regional sea levels have increased at a much faster rate than the global mean levels, particularly in the South Atlantic (3.52 ± 0.0 mm per year) and sub-tropical North Atlantic regions of the continent (3.48 ± 0.1 mm per year). 

At present, this issue continues to threaten the coastal populations by contamination of freshwater aquifers and increasing risks of storm surges. According to the Sixth Assessment report by the IPCC, regional sea levels are likely to keep rising and will contribute to coastal flooding and shoreline retreat along the Atlantic coasts of South America. A few cities which are considered to be highly vulnerable to climate change impacts of floodings (and cyclones) are Fortaleza, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and Porto Alegre in Brazil, Buenos Aires in Argentina, Santiago in Chile and Lima in Peru.    

You might also like: ​​15 Biggest Environmental Problems of 20243

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Climate technology (or clean tech) has been around for a while. In its nascent stages of development, many companies have integrated this science into the mission of a sustainable and cleaner Earth. These advancements which involve solar energy, wind power, carbon capture, and smart grid technologies are aimed at creating a low-carbon economy and a cleaner future with reduced carbon emissions. By harnessing the power of clean technology, we can collectively address the many challenges posed by climate change and work towards a safer and cleaner environment.  

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3 Climate Technology Developments in Asia

1. Carbon Markets and Credits

Carbon markets have been gaining traction over the last few years with the prime goal of many businesses centred on a healthy and sustainable environment. Such markets comprise businesses and organisations that buy, sell, and trade carbon credits and enable carbon offsets in their business models. One carbon offset – or carbon credit – is basically equivalent to one tonne of greenhouse gas reduced, sequestered, or removed from the atmosphere. 

In the fight against climate change, such carbon markets are beneficial even for companies and organisations as they enable them to reduce their carbon footprint while improving and conserving biodiversity through emission-reductions projects. 

Fairatmos, an Indonesian green-tech startup introduced the country’s first carbon technology platform, which enables communities to develop carbon sequestration projects for companies to finance and create carbon offsets through curated projects. With the aim to democratise carbon markets, the startup helps project developers verify carbon credits, develop carbon-reduction-based projects, and contribute to improving the livelihoods of smallholder communities through additional income from carbon credits.

Unravel Carbon, a Singapore startup and Asia’s first AI-powered decarbonisation platform has also been leading Singapore in helping organisations measure, report and reduce their carbon emissions. Their services range from providing businesses with a software-as-a-service decarbonisation platform, access and network channels to sustainability experts, and multiple pathways to achieving reduction targets (net-zero targets).

You might also like: Nature Credits Can Succeed Where Carbon Capture Technologies Failed: An Interview with Walid Al Saqqaf and Amit Ghosh

2. Renewable Energy

Decarbonisation strategies and transition to cleaner energy sources have been a growing and widely discussed topic in the last few years. 

ReNew, one of India’s largest renewable energy companies, has been responsible for some of the large-scale projects in the country in recent years. As a vital player in the market, the firm has a portfolio of wind, solar and hydro projects across several states. One of their most significant projects was the 300 MW wind farm commissioned in the state of Gujarat, which would provide neighbouring states Haryana and Orissa with clean energy at a rate of Rs. 2.44 per unit (US$0.03) and add more than 200 jobs. 

Another major project was the solar project in Karnataka with a capacity of 250 MW. In addition to clean energy projects, the firm also continues to make strong contributions to corporate social responsibility initiatives. Noteworthy mentions include the Lighting Lives programme, which provides “last-mile” electrification of schools and the creation of digital labs for the education of communities in rural areas, and the ReNew Women India Initiative, which aims to include women in entrepreneurial and capacity-building projects in the region. 

In Singapore, BlueSG, a sustainable transportation company, has been making waves in recent years and has received much praise for changing the transportation dynamic. This company provides electric car-sharing services to the public and has proven to not only be eco-friendly but also budget-friendly. The company offers a subscription-based model which allows users to rent cars at affordable prices. Drivers can pick up and drop off the cars at designated parking spaces across the country, making it a convenient option for people who wish to avoid the hassle of car ownership. The company also instituted the BlueSG Academy, which trains users on the importance of sustainable transportation and green tech initiatives. While electric vehicles have certainly made the news in the last decade or so, BlueSG has taken a step further to revolutionise the transition to a greener and cleaner environment.

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3. Waste Management

Waste management is a key aspect of discussions to reverse climate change and facilitate the clean energy transition. Reusing waste can help significantly reduce our carbon footprint and lead to a sustainable future in the long run.

In Indonesia, Rebricks made it a pledge to become a pioneer in the sustainable construction industry. The company has cemented itself as one of the leaders in climate tech innovators. Specialising in the production of eco-friendly materials, Rebricks produces a range of construction materials such as paving blocks, roofing materials, decorative stones, and wall cladding. What makes them unique, is that all these products come from recycled waste such as plastic and debris from construction activities. In their commitment to sustainability, Rebricks has also implemented other sustainable practices such as water conservation by closely working with suppliers and customers to promote sustainable practices in the supply chain. 

Another Singapore-based company, WasteX, aims to circularise agriculture and industrial waste by transforming biomass into high-quality products. Their value proposition has been to improve the economic value of waste and provide solutions for agricultural producers to address issues related to livestock and farm waste. For example, they have small-scale biochar carboniser that converts crop residue into biochar fertiliser. This not only allows farmers to reap the cost benefits but also enables them to take part in reducing their carbon footprint. 

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Takeaways

While climate technology and innovation are on the rise, education, and knowledge about science are also crucial moving forward. There are no boundaries when it comes to fighting climate change and any new solution to the crisis should be cross-border in nature, benefitting societies as a whole.

While certain roadblocks such as lack of funding and disproportionate government policies exist in South Asia, there are certainly visible signs that a green transition is on the horizon. 

Even with a nascent carbon market, climate startups and other bodies like NGOs have been contributing greatly to the cause, and ultimately, more people are becoming aware of the climate crisis that is continually impacting our globe. In sum, investing in climate solutions remains crucial, and with increased support from governmental bodies and coordination among stakeholders, there is a certainty that a streamlined transition to a green Earth is possible in the long term.

The post 3 Climate Technology Developments in Asia appeared first on Earth.Org.

The Arctic coasts have been eroding at elevated rates in recent years. Carbon pools in the permafrost regions are vast reservoirs that are extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Thawing permafrost, coupled with an increase in sea levels, further exacerbates coastal erosion and amplifies global warming. While the rates of erosion vary from place to place, an increase in the frequency of extreme events can lead to 30-40m of coastlines eroded every year. Here’s how climate change leads to coastal erosion in the Arctic and the catastrophic consequences of this phenomenon on the environment.

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What is the Arctic Permafrost?

The Arctic and sub-Arctic regions store large quantities of organic carbon and ground ice – collectively termed permafrost. These perennially frozen landscapes generally remain well-protected during the winters, when sea ice temperature is below freezing point, thereby keeping the soils frozen and stable. During the summers, the melting of sea ice and permafrost thawing destabilises these same landscapes. The cliffs and frozen ground become susceptible to rising open water periods, increased storminess, and wave heights. In addition to rising air temperatures, most of these factors have altered the Arctic coastal morphologies in the past decades, making them vulnerable to erosion and adversely affecting infrastructure and ecosystems.  

Figure 1. Coastal erosion processes reveal the extent of underlying ice-rich permafrost in the Arctic Coastal Plain in the Teshekpuk Lake Special Area of the National Petroleum Reserve (Alaska) – Photo by Brandt Meixell, USGS

How does Arctic Coastal Erosion Contribute to Global Warming?

The high-latitude regions of the Earth have been experiencing amplified warming, with temperatures increasing around 0.6C every decade over the last thirty years, which is twice as fast as the global average. The permafrost zones in the north absorb organic carbon and are estimated to store about 1,700 billion tons. In recent decades, studies have suggested that carbon storage in the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions goes as deep as 3 metres (9.8 feet) into the soil, well below the traditional zone of carbon accounting. This is because, in the past, deeper measurements were generally rare and there were several uncertainties surrounding the estimation of this carbon pool. 

Permafrost carbon in the soils provides the basis for greenhouse gases to release into the atmosphere, but the rate and magnitude at which this happens is controlled by the overall decomposability of the organic carbon. Among the factors which control the decomposability of these cold soils are the concentration of oxygen saturated in the soils and sediment accumulations, particularly in permafrost regions characterised by wetlands, lakes, and waterlogged soils. 

Figure 2. The Permafrost Carbon Feedback is an amplification of surface warming due to the thaw of organic material present in permafrost soils, which decay over time and release carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere. Photo retrieved on IOPscience.

Upon thawing of permafrost, organic matter and carbon undergo microbial decomposition, a process through which greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane are released into the atmosphere. This feedback further amplifies global warming, leading to environmental and economic consequences. Now the critical question here is: At what rate does this take place?

The answer depends on the degree of climate change on decadal to century-timescales and the spatial variation across the landscape, which refers to aerobic or anaerobic activity and the amount of carbon and ice present in the soils. Most of the direct emissions come from thaw slumps onshore. Abrupt collapses of frozen blocks from steep coastal cliffs into the ocean are also common, and this can exaggerate the release of carbon dioxide. Furthermore, near-shore ocean dynamics also play a role in the degradation of organic matter. In the event of abrupt thawing and coastal erosion, the organic carbon is released into the oceans and remains suspended in the water column. This permafrost carbon released into the nearshore zones undergoes one of many processes: it can deposit in marine sediments, be transported offshore by winds and waves and undergo mineralization or it can potentially spread in the atmosphere in the form of greenhouse gases. Mineralization and transport can further enhance climate warming effects, facilitating a positive carbon feedback. 

In addition to the questionable fate of eroded carbon in these regions, climate change impacts are still projected to cause further problems in the future. By the middle of the 21st century, the Arctic is most likely to be totally ice-free during summer. While smaller sea-ice covers mean increase in productivity, there is still an uncertainty that looms over the nutrient availability in the Arctic. At the same time, warmer and fresher Arctic waters may reduce the carbon dioxide uptake activity. Hence, this modest balance between these processes can determine the net-effect of future coastal erosion in the Arctic and can also help understand the carbon cycle.

Figure 3. A cabin in the Arctic Alaskan region seen washed into the ocean because the bluff on which it was built, was eroded away by rising sea levels. Photo by USGS.

The Future of the Arctic Carbon Cycle

A high proportion of residents in the Arctic live along the coastal zones and many derive their livelihood from terrestrial and coastal marine resources. Furthermore, the Arctic is itself a dynamic region of developments in industrial, commercial, tourist, and military sectors. Therefore, the socio-economic consequences of an extremely dynamic landscape will mostly become a recurring theme in the near to long term and will have a major influence on the decision-making and adaptation planning of the local governmental bodies. 

For example, let’s look at the remote village of Yupik in Newton, Alaska, located in a highly variable permafrost zone along the Bering Sea. Newtok and another nearby village of Kivalina are estimated to go underwater in the next decade due to drastically high erosion rates along the low-lying cliffs areas which have resulted in relocation efforts in recent years. Federal, state, and local representatives have taken charge of prioritising the development of housing, energy, and an evacuation centre. Alaska’s Division of Community and Regional Affairs (DCRA) has introduced the Alaska Climate Change Impact Mitigation Program, which will look into hazard mapping assessments and community planning processes which also include relocation site feasibility studies.  

In the Beaufort Sea region of Canada, another hamlet has a serious problem facing its shores. With increasing temperatures and rising sea levels, the Tuktoyaktuk community in North West Territories is facing extreme risks of coastal erosion. With reducing Arctic sea ice, larger areas of open water and waves are staying for longer periods relative to previous decades. The coastline is being eroded at rates of 2 metres (6.6 feet) per year and is at great risk of being breached in the next two decades, exposing the harbour to larger waves and intensified erosion. In 2020, the federal government announced US$5.5 million funding package for climate change adaptation strategies and clean energy projects in the area, $3.6 million of which will go into shoring up the coastline. Such activities involve the construction of more roads and installing of concrete mats along the shoreline. Scientists and research teams have also taken action to protect the coastline by cultivating local plant species in the form of vegetation mats which may combat permafrost by keeping the ground cold and intact. 

Significant developments in satellite imagery and airborne platforms have led to more accurate, frequent, and extensive mapping of permafrost coasts due to the increase in spatial and temporal resolution of satellite data. More readily available data on sea ice, climate dynamics, and permafrost conditions have increased our capacity to better model and create future coastline movements and their impacts on infrastructure. 

In recent years, the collaboration of several national and international scientific networks has enabled a better understanding of Arctic coastal dynamics. Our current dilemma has been focussed on environmental and social change, and with this lies a greater need for international collaboration between researchers, governments, local bodies, and societies to focus on permafrost coasts and Arctic coastal erosion in the years to come. Such developments certainly create a sense of hope and show promise for studying future changes in coastal permafrost dynamics and the influence on natural and built environments. 

Featured Image by Benjamin Jones, USGS

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The post Coastal Erosion in the Arctic: A Compounding Effect of Global Warming appeared first on Earth.Org.

Soaring temperatures and improper disaster management have resulted in increased desertification rates across the globe. Coupled with droughts and a drop in agricultural productivity, the effects of desertification cannot be ignored. To curb such high rates of land degradation that many regions of the world are experiencing, effective risk management is needed. What is desertification and what are the main causes and solutions?

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What Is Desertification?

Desertification has a few varying definitions, but mostly centres around semi-arid, sub-humid lands; in simple terms, it can be described as areas with low or variable rainfall. In addition, there is also the added element of human-induced land degradation owing to an expanding population and rampant deforestation.

Land degradation is a systematic global issue. The scale of the problem has been questioned for decades, with estimates of degraded areas ranging between 15 to 60 million kilometres. Currently, an estimated 2 billion people live on drylands vulnerable to this phenomenon and scientists predict that the effects of desertification could lead to the displacement of around 50 million people by 2030 as a result of the soaring temperatures, large-scale deforestation, and ecosystem damage in many parts of the world. Alone in Asia, more than 2 billion people will be living in dryland conditions, while Africa sees at least 1 billion in the same (Figure 1).

What Are the Causes of Desertification?

Land degradation has been ongoing for several decades. Droughts – increasingly frequent extreme weather events caused by global warming – also amplify this situation and can lead to the depletion of nutrients from the soil and the inability of land to regrow plants, resulting in drylands that currently cover about 40% of the globe, from the Mediterranean regions and the south-western parts of the US to Asia and the Middle East. Droughts, coupled with land degradation, give rise to desertification.

But this phenomenon is also caused by activities such as urbanisation, ranching, mining, and clearing of land and emission generation. By further contributing to a rise in temperatures and a reduction in precipitation, human interventions create a vicious cycle that only exacerbates the issue.

The degradation of land leads to a reduction in soil productivity, which can lead to a variety of complexities such as environmental hazards, food insecurity as well as loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. 

Where Does Desertification Occur the Most?

More than 60% of Central Asia is vulnerable to desertification processes. Soaring temperatures in parts of China, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and many other countries have been a cause of concern. Scientists have concluded that, since the 1980s, much of the Central Asian region was classified as having a desert climate. However, the issue has now spread toward northern Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, southern Kazakhstan, and around the areas of the Junggar Basin in north-western China. Mountains across the continental region have become hotter and wetter, resulting in the retreat of glaciers. An example of this is the Tian Shan region in north-western China. Here, an increase in temperature and precipitation in the form of rain instead of snow has contributed to the melting of ice at mountain tops. Thereby, glaciers in Central Asia are unable to replenish ice and as a consequence, less meltwater will flow to nearby regions, causing water shortages that affect people as well as the agricultural sector.

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Desertification is a huge issue also in Africa. For example, poor harvesting and a surge in barren lands continue to plague the inhabitants of Engaruka, Tanzania. In Mauritania, a drop in rainfall has worsened agricultural production and has left many farmers struggling to grow enough food to eat or sell. 

What Are the Main Effects of Desertification?

Desertification is attributed to soaring temperatures and/or drop in precipitation; this is likely to result in the modification and replacement of plant communities by species that are adapted to hotter and drier conditions. The most common change induced by desertification is the conversion of native vegetation by woody plants and invasive shrub species (for example Bufflegrass and Onion-weed in southwest America, and the Tamarisk plant in the Sahara). 

In this regard, Jeffrey Dukes, an ecologist from Carnegie Institution for Science’s Department of Global Ecology at Stanford said: “[Desertification] is going to have consequences for things like the grazing animals that are dependent on the steppe or the grasslands”. In some regions, he adds, extended periods of drought will reduce the land’s productivity until it becomes ‘dead’ soil. 

Desertification can also cause loss of biodiversity and loss of aquifers. In Africa, with nearly 45% of the landmass experiencing desertification, many people face even greater risks. In Mauritania, the dire situation has caused food insecurity, housing problems and population health declines. Villagers are trying to migrate as their houses become buried under the sand in addition to a lack of water sources and income. 

Desertification has also led to an increase in the frequency of dust storms. Particulate matter, pathogens, and allergens are detrimental to human health. The health effects caused by dust storms are greatest in the areas in the immediate vicinity of their origin and regions like the Sahara Desert, Central, and eastern Asia, the Middle East, and Australia are largely affected. In places such as the Sahara region, the Middle East, and South as well as East Asia, dust storms have been attributed to causing approximately 15–50% of all cardiopulmonary deaths.

The impacts of desertification in conjunction with climate change on socio-economic systems were also exemplified in an IPCC Report on climate change and land degradation. The report suggests that the interplay between desertification and climate change greatly affects the achievement of the targets of SDGs 13 (climate action) and 15 (life on land), thereby highlighting the need for efficient policy actions on land degradation neutrality and climate change mitigation (Figure 2).

How Can We Solve Desertification?

A new global approach of proactive action and risk management efforts is warranted in today’s changing landscape and climate. Droughts seem to be concurrent with desertification in many parts of the Earth. 

In Niger, local bodies have rehabilitated land to restore soil fertility, which has positively affected the country whose economy is largely dependent on agriculture. Here, the smallholder farmers have taken the initiative into their own hands by developing the principle of farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR). This technique involves the regeneration and multiplication of valuable trees whose roots already lay underneath their land, encouraging significant tree growth. Felled tree stumps, sprouting root systems, and seeds are regrown; this has boosted soil productivity, improved agricultural income and the lands are greener than before.

Village communities in Kenya and Tanzanian are fighting droughts and desertification by digging semi-circular trenches that store water when it rains, thereby retaining moisture for plants and trees. 

Some World Bank-funded projects have helped carry out ecological restoration and fixing of sand dunes in north-western China. One of the major problems of desertification is the migration or shifting of sands threatening infrastructure, villages, and irrigated farmland. Stabilisation of dunes (synonymously dune-fixing) is based on the straw-checkerboard technique. This technique involves planting straws of wheat, rice, reeds, and other plants in a checkerboard shape where half is buried and the other half is exposed. Desertification control efforts have also benefited several communities living in these areas by creating jobs and increasing incomes through the growing of sand-fixing shrub species and greenhouses.

Several other countries have already taken charge of curbing land degradation through tree-planting efforts. A nationwide ongoing effort is the “Great Green Wall of China” which has aimed to plant 88 million acres of forests in a 3000-mile network with a goal to tackle deforestation. A similar anti-desertification tree planting ambition, “Great Green Wall” of Africa has also been moving steadily since its inception in 2007. The plan to restore the degraded lands of the Sahel Region has had its fair share of progress and setbacks, but last year’s major boost announced at the One Planet Summit has planned to accelerate its completion in order to support the local farmers and support the agriculture business.

Every year, the United Nations observes the World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought, an occasion to promote public awareness of the presence of desertification and drought. This day is considered a unique moment to remind people of the ways in which land degradation can be solved through efficient problem-solving techniques and the cooperation between local, governmental, and environmental bodies. 

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In May 2022, the 15th Conference of Parties (COP15) of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) brought together ministers, high-level officials, the private sector, NGOs, and stakeholders to adopt resolutions that aim to drive progress in the protection and restoration of land. Among the resolutions adopted to curb desertification were the development of land restoration projects as well as increasing efforts to involve women in land management and collect gender-disaggregated data on the impacts of desertification and droughts. Promoting land-based jobs for youth and land-based youth entrepreneurship to strengthen youth participation and robust data monitoring of land restoration processes was also highlighted. Another key moment from this event was the launch of the Abidjan Legacy Programme; a US$2.5 billion project to strengthen supply chains while tackling the issues of deforestation and climate change. 

The takeaways from this are straightforward: A call to action and risk management efforts should be at the forefront of every planned proposal to curb environmental degradation. Be it land, soil, or water, efficient cooperation, and community efforts will certainly go a long way in mitigating the consequences of climate change and environmental degradation. 

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Indoor air pollution is the contamination of the indoor air caused by pollutants and sources like carbon monoxide, particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, radon, mould and ozone. While outdoor air pollution has captured the attention of millions, the worst air quality that you experience everyday may be coming from your homes.

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What is Indoor Air Pollution?

There exists a relatively unknown pollution that lurks around us. While pollution, in general, is certainly an integral aspect from an environmental and health perspective, such as water or noise, many of us are unaware that indoor air pollution has triggered several health risks in children and adults over the years. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) ranks it as one of the top five environmental dangers. 

We spend about 90% of our time indoors and it is proven that indoor emissions also contaminate the air. These indoor emissions can be natural or anthropogenic; they originate from the air we breathe to the indoor circulation and to a certain extent, from furniture articles. These emissions result in indoor air pollution. 

Indoor air pollution is the pollution (or contamination) of the indoor air caused by pollutants and sources like carbon monoxide, particulate matter (PM 2.5), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), radon, mould and ozone. 

Every year, almost four million premature deaths are recorded around the world due to indoor air pollution and many more suffer from diseases linked to it, such as asthma, heart diseases and cancer. Household air pollution caused by burning of unclean fuels and solid fuel stoves releases dangerous pollutants like nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides and particulate matter. What makes this even more concerning is that the air pollution caused indoors can contribute to almost 500,00 premature deaths attributed to outdoor air pollution annually. 

Indoor air pollution is deeply linked to inequality and poverty as well. A healthy environment is recognised as a constitutional right of the people. In spite of this, there are roughly three billion people who use unclean sources of fuels and live in some of the poorest nations in the world such as Africa, Latin American and Asian countries. Furthermore, the existing technologies and fuels used indoors already pose severe risks. Injuries such as burns and ingestion of kerosene are all linked to household energy used for lighting, cooking and other related purposes.

There is also a disproportionality that exists when referring to this hidden pollution. Women and girls are known to be affected the most due to them spending larger time indoors. According to an analysis conducted by the World Health Organisation in 2016, girls in households that depend on unclean fuels lose around 20 hours each week gathering wood or water; this means that they are at a disadvantage, both in comparison to households that have access to clean fuels, as well as to their male counterparts.

So how does indoor air pollution relate to climate change?

Black carbon (also known as soot) and methane – a greenhouse gas that is more potent is carbon dioxide – emitted by inefficient combustion in households are powerful pollutants contributing to climate change. Household cooking and heating appliances account for the highest source of black carbon which basically involve the use of coal briquettes, wooden stoves and traditional cooking appliances. Furthermore, black carbon has a stronger warming impact than carbon dioxide; around 460 -1,500 times stronger than carbon dioxide per unit of mass.

Climate change in turn, can also affect the air we breathe indoors. Rising carbon dioxide levels and increasing temperatures can trigger outdoor allergen concentrations, which can infiltrate indoor spaces. Extreme weather events in recent decades have also downgraded indoor air quality by increasing dampness, which results in an increase in dust, mould and bacteria. 

The conundrum of indoor air pollution brings us to “indoor air quality”. Indoor air quality (IAQ) refers to the air quality in and around buildings and structures, and relates to the health, comfort and well-being of building occupants. In sum, indoor air quality is determined by the pollution indoors. Therefore, to address and improve IAQ, is to tackle indoor air pollution sources.

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Ways to Reduce Indoor Air Pollution

To start with, household pollution is something that can be curbed to a good extent. Since we all cook in our homes, using cleaner fuels like biogas, ethanol and other renewable energy sources can certainly take us a step forward. An added benefit to this, would be the reduction in forest degradation and habitat loss – replacing biomass and other wood sources – which can also address the pressing issue of global climate change.

Through the Climate and Clean Air Coalition, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has also taken steps to prioritise the adoption of cleaner energy sources and technologies that can improve air quality, reduce air pollutants, and bring to the forefront the importance of environmental, social and economic benefits of the same. This voluntary partnership of governments, organisations, scientific institutions, businesses and civil society organisations was borne out of initiatives created to solve air quality and protect the globe by reducing short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs). 

The World Health Organization (WHO) also raises awareness of household air pollution at country and regional levels through workshops and direct consultations. They have created a Clean Household Energy Solutions Toolkit (CHEST), a repository of information and resources to identify stakeholders working on household energy solutions and public health issues to design, apply and monitor processes concerning household energy use.

On the individual level, there are ways in which we can ensure cleaner air in our homes. It is certain that awareness is key. Many of us should learn and understand the source of pollution from our homes, whether it comes from ink, printers, carpets, furniture, cooking appliances, etc. 

Keep check of the air fresheners that you use at home. While many of us are inclined to keep our homes odour-free and welcoming, some of these can be a source of pollution. To be more specific, reduce the use of air fresheners which contain limonene; this can be a source of VOCs. Ventilation is of utmost importance. Opening our windows for relevant periods of time, using certified and efficient air filters and exhaust fans are easy first steps to begin with. Consider doing an air quality assessment, especially in offices and large residential areas, to understand the different parameters that govern indoor air quality. Also, regular checks of pipes for leaks and window frames after a downpour can help prevent the growth of damp and mould. This also means keeping humidity levels between 30%-50% in areas which are likely to gather moisture. 

Indoor air quality and pollution are two concepts which have and tend to be ignored. But with the right mind-set and healthy lifestyle, we can always adapt to change, even in our homes. This can lead to cleaner air and breathable environments for ourselves and children, and in turn, lead to a safer living. 

Featured image by: Wikimedia Commons

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The oil tanker which was abandoned five years ago in the Red Sea has gained the attention of millions on account of its deterioration, likelihood of an oil spill, and its consequences on marine life and human beings.

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In 2015, the FSO Safer, was abandoned in the Red Sea, 4.8 nautical miles off the coast of Yemen’s western port of Hodeida. This rusting oil tanker has been a growing concern for neighbouring countries due to the probability of an explosion and a consequential oil spill in the enclosed region of the Red Sea. In addition, an oil spill from this could be four times bigger than that of the Exxon Valdez, which had been severely damaging to the marine ecosystem and would likely further aggravate the communal tensions that exist in war-torn Yemen and neighbouring regions. 

The Red Sea is one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots and is also susceptible to surrounding changes, given the highly biodiverse ecosystem of endemic species and sensitive habitats such as mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs. 

Marine oil spills are a unique category of disasters in that they are generally unpredictable. In 1989, Exxon Valdez which ran aground on the Alaskan reefs, spilled 11 million gallons of crude oil into Prince William Sound at the Gulf of Alaska. Decades later, the most notable Deepwater Horizon disaster shocked the world when a drilling explosion released one hundred and thirty-four million gallons of crude oil into the Gulf of Mexico. 

Improved regulations over the years have curbed the frequency of oil spills of large to medium vessels to about six per year. However, dilapidated, ignored, and uninsured vessels pose a different kind of problem which require not only technical solutions, but financial, and political ones. Furthermore, given the ongoing conflicts in Yemen, the conundrum of the 45-year old FSO Safer in the Red Sea requires safe and efficient solutions sooner than later.

Scientific research conducted over the last few years has addressed the potential of an oil spill disaster and the resulting damage to human populations and the Red Sea ecosystem in general. An oil spill is likely to worsen the ongoing humanitarian crisis in Yemen. Yemen’s fisheries are also another major susceptible sector, given that fishing has been the source of income and food security for the people there. The resulting pollution from an oil spill in the form of smoke or combustion could lead to cardiovascular diseases and respiratory health issues. The drinking water supply of the Red Sea could be contaminated in three weeks or less from the time of the oil spill. In addition to hampering the marine ecosystem and coral reefs, an oil spill in this region could hinder global trade through the important Bab el-Mandeb Strait. 

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Greenpeace, an environmental group, concluded in their study that an oil spill in the Red Sea would not only prevent access to Yemen’s major ports of Hodeida and Salif, but will also disrupt the food supply chains for the 8.4 million people in Yemen. Greenpeace has also been actively collaborating with organisations in Yemen to determine best possible solutions to prevent any major environmental issues and work on response measures in case of a major oil spill.

In the recent past, there have been proposals and support put forward by various organisations and bodies with regards to solving this impending crisis. After all, the political background and civil unrest in Yemen warrant support and solutions as quickly and as efficiently as possible. In February, The United Nations (UN) declared that an agreement has been made in transferring the toxic oil tanker to another ship. In a statement Martin Griffiths, UN’s deputy chief for humanitarian affairs, said, “I am pleased to report recent progress in efforts to resolve the Safer tanker issue, including an agreement in principle to a UN-coordinated proposal to shift the oil to another ship.”

The last seven years have seen a gradual increase in concerns surrounding this complicated issue. While there has been steady progress from a solutions perspective, the current requirements include major organisations, oil companies, and regional governmental bodies to take charge and implement measures before it is too late. Looking back at history, and given the advancements in solutions and technology, our society has undergone a gradual shift towards a more environmental and climate-centric approach to difficulties. This has been a positive for all inhabitants on Earth; and the more awareness is generated, the more actions can be taken, the more solutions can be implemented.

Featured image by: CEOBS

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