The United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals provides a blueprint to achieve peace and prosperity for people around the world, offering a set of strategies to developed and developing countries to end poverty, improve health and education and combat climate change. But the 17 goals are highly interdependent on one another and may result in conflicting interactions and diverging results.

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The Millennium Development Declaration was adopted by United Nations members at the Millennium Summit in September 2000, and consisted of eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) aimed to reduce extreme poverty by 2015. There were later calls for further elaboration of the MDGs in the post-2015 development agenda, which resulted in the adoption of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, or the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). 

The SDGs consist of 17 goals and 169 targets to ensure human well-being, economic prosperity and environmental protection simultaneously. The set goals are interdependent and provide a blueprint for a global partnership between developed and developing countries to achieve economic prosperity, environmental protections and to safeguard the well-being of people around the world. 

A 2017 study investigated the Sustainable Development Goals and identified various synergies and trade-offs between goals and targets, analysing its interrelated positive and negative correlations. Researchers found the SDGs are highly interdependent on one another and the goals may result in conflicting interactions and diverging results. Significantly, concerns were observed regarding the success of balancing the objective of climate change mitigation, economic development, environmental sustainability and the social inclusion of human well-being. Thus, the study identifies the successes of synergies and investigates whether trade-offs can be tackled. 

The study found that SDG 1 (No poverty) had the greatest synergy with the other SDGs (see  figure 1). The goal of no poverty appeared five times in the global top 10 synergy pair list. It was found that reducing poverty is statistically linked to favouring the progress of SDGs 3 (Good health and well-being), 4 (Quality education), 5 (Gender equality), 6 (Clean water and sanitation), and 10 (Reduced inequalities). 

Figure 1: Global ranking of Sustainable Development Goals’ pairs in terms of synergies (left) and trade-offs (right). Source: Pradhan, P., Costa, L., Rybski, D., Lucht, W., & Kropp, J. P, 2017. 

SDGs 3 (Good health and well-being) also had high amounts of synergies with other goals, including SDGs 1 (Poverty Reduction), 4 (Quality education), 5 (Gender equality), 6 (Provision of clean water and sanitation), 10 (Inequalities reduction). 

One of the reasons suggested behind the higher synergies of some SDGs is that some goals have the same indicator or target with other goals. For example, “number of deaths, missing persons, and persons affected by disaster” and “number of countries with national and local disaster risk reduction strategies” are both included as a target in SDGs 1 (No poverty), 11 (Sustainable cities and communities), and 13 (Climate action). This would imply that the progress of these targets would benefit all three of these goals at the same time, creating a synergy of the SDGs. 

On the other hand, trade-offs are prominently observed in SDGs 8 (Decent work and economic growth), 9 (Industry, innovation, and infrastructure), 12 (Responsible consumption and production), and 15 (Life on land). Significantly, SDGs 12 and 15 frequently appear as a goal with a trade-off to other goals as seen in figure 1 above. SDGs 12 and 15 have trade-offs with 10 and 12 goals respectively. 

It was observed in the study that trade-offs between the SDGs occur because the goals with high trade-off percentages are focused on economic growth. This often results in improved human well-being at the expense of environmental sustainability. For instance, to reduce poverty (SDGs 1) which improves human welfare as a whole, SDGs 12 (Responsible consumption and production) has to be sacrificed as consumption and production would increase at a rate that would substantially cause impact on the environment. 

A prominent example of the trade-off between SDGs 1 and 12 is the dilemma between deforestation and increasing food production. Many have argued that deforestation rates are reaching an increasingly dangerous level, posing an immediate threat to the environment. Yet, others argue that securing food production is much more important to the well-being of humans.

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Another example of a trade-off is the relationship between the increase in manufacturing jobs and environmental degradation through carbon emissions. This issue is especially severe for developing countries who are hoping to catch up to the developed ones through rapid economic growth. Yet, developing countries face constraints in the form of environmental goals and policies.

Moreover, it was discovered that developed countries generally provide greater well-being, but are often subjected to greater impact on the physical environment. Thus, goals that focus on economic growth and human well-being often have a negative correlation with the other goals that focus on environmental sustainability.  

Furthermore, the study also found that trade-offs and synergies are not globally balanced and are geographically restricted. Synergies are mainly found in developed countries, whereas trade-offs are mainly found in the developing countries as seen in figure 2 below. 

Figure 2: Global distribution of the difference between the shares of synergies and trade-offs among the SDG goals by country. Green colour represents countries where synergies have a higher share than trade-offs, whilst the orange represents the opposite. Source: Pradhan, P., Costa, L., Rybski, D., Lucht, W., & Kropp, J. P, 2017.

Some countries, especially the developed ones, have a positive and advantageous starting point in implementing the SDGs. This is due to their relatively larger percentage of synergies than trade-off pairs. It was found that the synergy pairs in countries such as Finland, Germany and Japan were at least 60% more than the trade-off pairs. Thus, this suggests an interesting pattern in the global distribution of synergies and trade-offs of the SDGs. 

Moving on, it was pointed out that SDGs 3 (Good health and well-being) had the highest share of synergies with all the other goals across the world. Interestingly in 2015, approximately 2.7 billion people lived in countries where SDGs 3 had synergy with SDGs 6 (Clean water and sanitation). Furthermore, approximately 6.8 billion people live in countries where SDGs 3 is one of their top synergy pairs. 

With this phenomenon observed, it is suggested that prioritising good health and well-being (SDGs 3) will substantially help the advancement of other SDGs. Instead of focusing on achieving the goals separately, perhaps countries can utilise the synergies of the goals to help advance the progression of other goals.   

On the other hand, SDGs 3 (Good health and well-being) and 12 (Responsible consumption and production) was identified as the top trade-off pair in 121 countries. This indicates that SDGs 3 and 12 are the most common trade-off pairs across the world. It was explained that this is due to the trend where countries with more established health care and well-being are often found with a greater environmental footprint. Here, it can be observed that there is a negative correlation between the two goals, where the improvement of one would hinder the advancement of the other.  

Interestingly, the study pointed out that around 3.4 billion people live in countries where the dependency or correlation between good health and well-being and consumption and production needs to be improved or reinvented. Significantly, it was emphasised that if this dependency is not revised, a “lock-in effect” will occur, where countries have to sacrifice one goal for the progression of the other. 

However, the study has also pointed out that there are examples where synergies between SDGs 3 and 12 exist, although only for a small number of countries. This suggests that a synergy between these 2 goals can indeed exist. This highlights that the “lock-in effects” of trade-offs can be broken or reinvented, through policies of the past and present. 

In general, the study asserted that the goals and targets of the SDGs should not be “seen as an additive structure, but as a system of synergistic re-enforcements”. Instead of looking at the goals as separate identities, they should be treated as “cogwheels” that are dependent and interact with one another. 

Moreover, the progress and achievement of the SDGs in the future will depend on whether the synergies and trade-offs can be identified and tackled. Typically, having more synergy pairs suggest a stronger foundation for the success in the implementation of the SDGs. An example would be SDGs 3 as suggested above. By identifying the synergy pairs, it can help the advancements of other goals. 

Importantly, the study concludes the investigation by stating that policies that foster “cross-sectoral and cross-goal” synergetic relations will significantly help the operationalisation of the Sustainable Development Goals in the future. 

The post Exploring the Interconnectedness of Sustainable Development Goals appeared first on Earth.Org.

In recent years, there has been a growing focus on sustainability and the environment. Burning fossil fuels is arguably the biggest cause of the climate crisis, and renewable energy can fill the gap that ending the use of fossil fuels will leave. By 2019, the global consumption of primary energy from renewable sources increased to 11.4%, from 7% in 2000. Of all renewable energy sources, hydroelectric power represents the largest share of renewable energy in the world. How is it distributed around the world?

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Hydroelectric power converts kinetic energy of the falling water into mechanical energy through the rotation of turbines. Generators then convert the mechanical energy into electrical energy that is used by the public.

In 2019, the global share of energy from hydroelectric power out of all forms of energy sources (including fossil fuels) was 6.45%, increasing from 6.08% in 2007. Furthermore, of all renewables, hydroelectric power constituted 60.08% of the renewable energy mix in 2019. 

Interestingly, there has been a trend where developing countries are utilising or engaging in the establishment of hydroelectric power more than the developed countries. As seen in Figure 1 below, hydropower generation is generally greater in developing countries, including in China, South America and Africa. 

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Figure 1: Hydropower Generation in 2020 (Source: Our World in Data)

One of the factors in this may be the greater precipitation rate in developing countries. From Figure 2 below, we can see that precipitation rates are generally higher in tropical and subtropical regions, which are generally developing countries. This suggests a correlation between the average annual precipitation rate and share of electricity production from hydropower.

Figure 2: Global Average Annual Precipitation (mm per year) (Source: Our World in Data)

Significantly, a 2017 study discovered that a 43% increase in precipitation results in an approximately 39% increase in electricity production from hydropower plants. This strongly indicates a relationship between electricity production of hydropower plants and precipitation. 

Another reason to explain developing countries’ high utilisation of hydroelectric power is “South to South Investment,” trade, a trade cooperation between developing countries. The investment and trade focuses on the installation, innovation and dissemination of technologies and knowledge of hydroelectric power plants. For example, the trade of hydraulic turbines and parts, and of the knowledge and technology required to convert hydropower into electricity. 

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“South to South Investment” is an important source in supporting the technology and financial transfer of hydropower, especially for developing countries. From 2004 to 2012, the trade in equipment and parts of hydropower increased from less than 10% to approximately 50% of total global trade. Through this channel of investment and trade, developing countries can successfully obtain the equipment and knowledge required to help them efficiently transfer hydropower into electricity they need. 

Furthermore, the increasing global call for the reduction of burning fossil fuels has pressured countries to transition to renewable energy. However, developing countries face obstacles. Most developing countries have a high energy demand due to its industrial nature, such as its manufacturing and energy intensive industries. Thus, developing countries aim to transition to a renewable energy that can support its high energy demands. 

Compared to other forms of renewable energy, such as wind or solar energy, hydropower is least affected by the seasons and weather as it stores water through its dam. Meanwhile, solar and wind energy, which is highly dependent on the weather, may be unable to generate enough energy for its manufacturing industries as it is unable to store high amounts of sun and wind energy prior. Hydroelectric power can store large amounts of water through its dam, making it relatively less reliant on the weather. 

Hydropower also has a greater efficiency than other forms of renewable energy. The global weighted average capacity factor of hydropower was 47% in 2017. This value was greater than the approximated 20% of wind energy and 15% of solar power. The capacity factor refers to the ratio of energy that can be produced by the power generator in a given period. This implies that hydropower can convert the greatest amount of energy in the same time period compared to other renewables. 

The trend where developing countries utilise hydropower energy more can also be observed from the growth of hydropower generation. In recent years, the two countries with the highest growth of hydropower generation were China and Brazil, both developing countries.

China observed a 56-fold increase in hydropower generation, from 22.10 TWh in 1965 to 1269.67 TWh in 2019, while Brazil recorded an increase from 25.52 TWh in 1965 to 399.30 TWh. Both China and Brazil are becoming the rising global leaders of hydropower, with China currently being the indisputable leader.

Looking at China as an example, it recorded the greatest hydropower generation in 2020 with 1355.2TWh. Pumped storage hydropower has been observed as an essential component in providing flexibility to the country’s power system. China has been implementing reforms and policies to aid in the transition to renewables and to commit to its goal of becoming carbon neutral by 2060. Hydropower has continued to be a priority in the energy transition in China. 

China has also displayed active engagement in the “South to South” trade and investment scheme through its One Belt One Road (OBOR) initiative. The country has continued to invest in major hydropower projects internally and overseas. In 2019, 7 out of the top 10 largest hydropower dams were located in China, with the Three Gorges Dam in Yangtze River being first. In the coming few years, it is expected that there will be new hydropower projects including Wudongde and Baihetan in Jinsha River, and many more projects. 

Another interesting example is Brazil, who generates 74% of all the country’s electricity from hydropower. Osvaldo San Martin, the president and CEO of Voith Hydro Latin America notes that the “untapped hydropower potential is still huge and renewable energy continues to be one of the region’s most valuable assets.” Significantly, he reinforced that the growth of renewables in Brazil will continue to impress, “especially in the new hydropower sector”. 

Brazil and several countries in Latin America have government support and incentives that encourage the development and utilisation of renewable energy, including hydropower. Brazil has also established many channels to equip people with knowledge and skills regarding hydropower energy. For example, Alstom – a manufacturing operation company specialising in power plants and equipment – signed partnerships with two universities in Brazil to create degree programmes related to hydropower energy. Alstom is also building the world’s largest hydro manufacturing facility in Brazil, providing them with expertise in areas including turbines, generators, hydro mechanical equipment etc.

However, there are also several disadvantages and limitations to hydroelectric power. The most significant one is the damage to the surrounding environment and ecosystem. Most hydroelectric power plants require the construction of a dam, which would result in the destruction and fragmentation of the surrounding habitats. For example, the construction of these water dams may affect the migration and movement of aquatic organisms, hinder their reproduction, and in some extreme cases, some species may become extinct. 

Also, as most of the hydroelectric projects are physically large in size and might result in the flooding of massive areas within a river valley. Yet, with the advancement of knowledge and technology, the negative impact of constructing these hydroelectric plants can possibly be reduced or minimised. 

In recent years, developing countries, such as China and Brazil, have shown the greatest positive increase in hydropower generation compared to other developed countries. Thus, we can predict that the trend where developing countries utilise hydropower energy more will continue in the future. As countries continue their transition towards renewable energies in its attempt to reduce the burning of fossil fuels, hydropower energy will continue to be a growing force in clean energy. 

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The post The Future of Hydroelectric Power: A Regional Analysis appeared first on Earth.Org.

Since the Industrial Revolution in the 1760s, energy has been crucial to our survival. The burning of fossil fuels used to be our main source of energy, but shifting attitudes toward the need for a more sustainable future has caused a shift toward renewables, particularly solar energy. The share of fossil fuels in the global energy mix has typically exceeded 60%, however, since 2011, this percentage has been gradually dropping. In 2011, the share of electricity from fossil fuels was 67.56%. In 2020, this dropped to 60.95%. Of the many renewable energy sources, solar power has been on the rise in recent years. Globally, the utilisation of solar power has substantially increased; in 2020, the global average electricity production from solar power was 844.39TWh, a 231% increase from 254.67TWh in 2015. We look at where this shift to solar energy has been most pronounced.

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The proportion of solar energy in the world’s energy mix has been increasing through the years. In 2010, solar energy represented only 0.06% of the global energy mix, which increased to 1.11% in 2019. The proportion of solar energy in the renewable energy mix has also increased substantially, from 0.8% in 2010 to 10.3% in 2019. However, this increase has not been uniform. Many developing countries- despite enjoying a geographical advantage- have not been utilising solar power as much compared to developed countries. 

Solar power converts solar energy into electricity. Solar panels are installed to generate DC (Direct Current) electricity which is then converted into AC (Alternating Current) electricity to provide us with power. For a substantial amount of energy to be generated, a large amount of solar energy is required. With this in mind, developing countries should enjoy an advantage as many developing countries are located in regions where they have optimal access to the sun’s rays. 

Most developing countries are located in tropical and subtropical regions, which are close to the equator, and therefore enjoy greater solar irradiance. This indicates that developing countries, especially those in the tropical and subtropical regions, should enjoy a greater potential in solar energy due to its geographical advantage. 

This is reinforced in Figure 1 below, showing that tropical and subtropical regions enjoy a greater photovoltaic power potential, which refers to the estimated electricity that can be produced through solar energy. From the map, we can see that those countries in red to purple are those that enjoy the greatest potential from solar energy, and most, although not all, are developing countries. 

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Global average photovoltaic power potential in 2019. Image: Our World in Data.

Developing countries should therefore be able to fully capture the benefits of solar power with its geographical advantage. Yet, that is not the case as shown in figure 2 below. Contrary to expectations, developed countries such as America, Australia and many European countries including Germany, Spain and France are the leaders in solar power generation.

Global Solar Power Generation in 2020. Image: Our World is Data. 

Moreover, developing countries are still heavily dependent on fossil fuels as their primary energy source. In 2019, around 84% of global primary energy came from fossil fuels. A few countries’ share of primary energy from fossil fuels exceeded 90% in 2019, and most are developing countries. For example, Mexico, Algeria, South Africa, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, Indonesia, India, Iran etc. are countries whose share of energy from fossil fuel exceeds 90%. 

Why is this the case? One of the most crucial reasons is the priority for “developing” countries. Unlike developed countries that have already undergone economic development, developing countries are still “catching up” or breaking through. Developed countries rely heavily on their tertiary industry, which includes services such as retail, information technology, financial services, hospitality and leisure, communication etc. These economies require significantly less energy than developing countries, which are undergoing industrialisation.

The current issue with solar power is that it can only generate a limited amount of power due to its relatively low efficiency, and is also weather dependent. The low efficiency and output of solar power may be insufficient to deliver enough power to support developing countries’ manufacturing industries. It is important to note that to achieve economic development, the performance of manufacturing industries, or the secondary sector, is a crucial factor. Thus, many developing countries prioritise development over environmental concerns. 

Furthermore, developing countries also face numerous obstacles that prevent them from utilising solar power fully. Firstly, from an economic perspective, even though the price of solar energy technologies has decreased rapidly in recent years, its efficiency is still relatively low compared to fossil fuels. For the same price invested towards fossil fuel and solar energy, fossil fuels can still produce more energy as its efficiency is higher. As mentioned above, developing countries value energy production highly to support its industries, and would prefer an energy source with high efficiency and low cost. 

Moreover, developing countries face constraints in terms of adequate access to finances, especially in their investment costs. Most developing countries still lack specific policies or regulations, which hinders the adoption of solar energy systems. This results in the increase in capital costs for developers and investors, and financial institutions may be reluctant to finance long-term solar power projects due to possible uncertainties. 

Developing countries also often have a poorly skilled workforce and lack the technical expertise and knowledge to install and maintain solar technologies. This is due to the absence of established vocational and technical training centres, and insufficient R&D. Qualified engineers often need to be brought into the country to help install or maintain the energy systems, or to educate the local workforce, increasing the cost of establishing solar energy. Such factors are often highlighted by researchers as one of the significant barriers to the establishment of solar energy. 

Additionally, the price of fossil fuels are still considerably low due to the abundance of reserves in developing countries. In November 2019, the global crude oil price was US$56.83 per barrel, a significant decrease from US$118.71 in 2011. The exploration of more oil reserves and the discovery of shale gas, along with new extraction techniques such as fracking has provided a cheaper alternative for developing countries. 

The shale gas boom was a “revolution” in the USA in the natural gas industry, and has spread across the world. It started in 2007, and by 2010, shale gas constituted 23% of the USA’s total gas production. The discovery of shale gas has led to ease of access of a new and vast resource. 

Moreover, the technique of fracking resulted in the ability to extract the gas in mass quantities and at a low cost. Although the cost of solar power has continued to decrease, the sudden attractiveness of shale gas has strongly captivated developing countries. Therefore, overcoming the appeal of shale gas may be another barrier in the development of solar power in developing countries. 

Next, from a societal perspective, developing countries often lack the infrastructure, technology and skilled workforce to fully exploit the potential of solar power. Although rich in solar power, developing countries lack appropriate physical infrastructure for solar power systems to be established. Furthermore, infrastructures of poor quality such as the lack of well-built and established roads becomes a significant problem. This results in an increase of transportation costs, such as more time needed to transport the equipment and manpower etc. The lack of infrastructure suggests the need for big initial investments, and such investments increase the cost in providing solar energy, especially during the initial years.

 The rise in the significance of solar power in recent years cannot be ignored. Whether developing countries can overcome these barriers will undoubtedly shape the future of solar energy. Could developed countries possibly serve as a guide or provide aid to developing countries for the growth of solar power? The aid and assistance of developed countries could become an important bridge that allows solar power to flourish in developing countries. 

Developing countries already have the greatest asset of the natural resource at hand but whether they can fully capture this advantage will be the thing to look out for in the near future. As former United States Secretary of the Interior, Ken Salazar suggests, “I think the future for solar energy is bright.” 

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