Atmospheric rivers are essential for the transportation of precipitation occurring in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere. The rapidly changing climate is causing shifts in these long, flowing regions of the atmosphere, resulting in an increasing number of extreme weather events that bring about destruction across the world. 

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What Are Atmospheric Rivers?

Atmospheric rivers occur in the Earth’s atmosphere as a concentrated band of moisture and wind that transports large amounts of water vapor and are the largest and most important transport mechanisms of freshwater on Earth. Similar to terrestrial rivers, atmospheric rivers can vary in strength and size and can occur both in the Northern hemisphere – typically between December and February – and in the Southern hemisphere – typically between June and August, when extratropical cyclones are prevalent. 

For atmospheric rivers to form, the following conditions are required:

1. Strong low-level winds that act as a highway for water vapour to be transported across. The jet streams in the Northern and Southern hemispheres act as these highways, with speeds reaching as high as 442km/h (275mph).
2. High moisture levels, which are a prerequisite for precipitation to occur. 
3. Orographic life, a phenomenon that occurs when an air mass moves from a low to a higher elevation as it moved over rising terrain, such as a mountain. As the air mass gains altitude, it quickly cools down, raising humidity in the air and eventually leading to the formation of clouds and, under the right conditions, precipitations.

Impacts of Atmospheric Rivers

Atmospheric rivers can have different impacts on ecosystems and global freshwater supply. Some aspects of atmospheric rivers are important as they provide water security for communities and keep the water cycle in balance. 

Advantages of atmospheric rivers include the redistribution of freshwater supply across the planet as well as increased water levels and snowpack in watersheds. Given that only around 1.2% of all freshwater is surface water and thus daily available, redistribution of freshwater supply is crucial. Increased water levels in watersheds promote ecosystem biodiversity, replenish groundwater reserves, and nurture the overall health of a watershed. In cooler months, freshwater is stored as snowpacks, which then melts into liquid during warmer months, replenishing the watershed and bringing water back to normal levels. Additionally, albedo, the snowpacks’ ability to reflect sunlight – and thus heat – back to the atmosphere, helps cooling to Earth’s surface.  

The science behind atmospheric rivers. Infographic: NOAA

Disadvantages of this weather phenomenon include landslides, mudslides, and major flooding. 

When large volumes of rain carried by atmospheric rivers make landfall, they can lead to soil saturation, meaning soil is no longer capable of absorbing water, which instead accumulates and eventually leads to flooding. Moreover, if there is not enough vegetation in the area – for example as a result of a forest fire – and the slope is steep enough, abundant precipitation can result in landslides and/or mudslides. Lastly, a lack of atmospheric rivers can also result in droughts, which are associated with food insecurity and shortages as well as increased human conflicts.

The Role of Climate Change In Shaping Weather Patterns

According to a study published in October 2020, atmospheric rivers in the Southern Hemisphere have been shifting poleward by a rate of 0.24°, 0.27°, and 0.72° per decade over the past four decades. This shift, a direct result of anthropogenic forcing, has had repercussions on our oceans and atmospheric temperatures by altering the sea surface temperatures in the ocean, increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and accelerating ozone depletion. 

Atmospheric Rivers Around the World

As mentioned before, atmospheric rivers have become more frequent and intense in recent years. 

On August 17, 2022, the North and South Islands of New Zealand were hit by an atmospheric river that resulted in unprecedented precipitation events. The large band of moisture transported huge amounts of precipitation, leading to devastating flooding across the country. Tākaka, a small town in the South Island, received one-third of its annual rainfall in just three days. Flooding displaced many communities and caused huge damages to their buildings and infrastructure. Over 400 homes were evacuated and entire roadways were washed out. 

From December 2022 to March 2023, the California has experienced a total of 12 atmospheric river events. In January 2023, gale-force winds downed power lines, leaving more than hundreds of thousands of people across the state without electricity. In just a few weeks, several areas in central California received over half their average annual rainfall. While these atmospheric rivers mitigated the impacts of the years-long drought affecting the US country by increasing the soil moisture content, the amount of precipitation received was more than the landscape could handle, thus leading to floods that have cost more than one billion in damages.

You might also like: Seventh Consecutive Atmospheric River Since Christmas Rolls Through California With Bigger Storm Expected This Weekend

What Does the Future Hold?

With climate change knocking at our door and air and ocean temperatures rising, atmospheric rivers will only keep intensifying in strength, frequency, and length, with some studies suggest in that rainfall will increase by up to 40% more in a warming world.

Featured image: NOAA Satellites/Flickr

The post Explainer: The Science Behind Atmospheric Rivers appeared first on Earth.Org.

Small changes can have a large effect. In the latest article for Earth.Org’s ‘What Can I Do’ Series, we discuss four steps you can take to reduce your carbon footprint.

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4 Easy Steps to Reduce Your Carbon Footprint in 2024

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Annual 2022 Global Climate Report showed that Northern and Southern Hemisphere surface temperatures were 1.10C and 0.61C above the 20th century average, respectively. The global increase in temperature emphasises the importance of reducing greenhouse gases (GHG) we release into our atmosphere. At the individual level, you can take action by altering your mindset, reducing energy usage, riding a bike, and taking part in “Meatless Mondays.”

Step 1. Alter Your Mindset

Alter your mindset by considering the life-cycle of products before you purchase them. The life-cycle of products go from manufacture, transportation, usage, and – if not reusable – disposal. By considering the life-cycle of a product, you recognise what it takes to get the product to you, how long it will last, and if you can repurpose it after its life-cycle. Considering the GHG emissions associated with the life-cycle of a product will help you make more conscious decisions.

Step 2. Reduce Energy Usage

You can reduce your energy usage by reducing the amount of heating and cooling you use. Air conditioning accounts for nearly 4% of global GHG emissions while heating accounts for 40% of energy-related GHG emissions. By setting your thermostat one degree celsius cooler in the winter and one degree celsius warmer in the summer, you reduce your carbon dioxide emissions by 340 kilogrammes. Not only that, but you can also save money on your energy bill. 

More on the topic: Global Energy Crisis: 5 Ways To Save Energy This Year

Step 3. Consider Riding a Bike

On average, a gasoline car travelling 64 kilometres per day will emit 7,000 kilogrammes of carbon dioxide. An e-bike travelling the same distance will emit nearly 96% less. A manual bike travelling the same distance will emit even less than a car and e-bike. By choosing to ride a bike, you will reduce your carbon dioxide emission, the exercise may improve your health, and the commute might be faster than driving during high traffic times.  

Step 4. Consider “Meatless Mondays”

Meatless Monday is an international campaign that encourages people to not eat meat on Mondays to improve their health and the health of the planet.

Your food choices impact the climate. Meat production makes up 60% of all GHG emissions from food production and about 35% of all global emission. These emissions are based on the entire food production, such as use of machinery to transport feed for animals and enteric fermentation from animals. Practising “Meatless Mondays” could decrease your meat intake, resulting in a reduced demand for meat and the GHG emissions associated with it. 

More on the topic: 10 Interesting Plant-Based Food Facts That Will Blow Your Mind

Conclusion

These four steps can help you make conscious decisions, save you money on your energy bill, help you exercise, and promote vegetable creativity in the kitchen. While they might seem small, these actions can have a big impact.Taking steps to reduce your footprint will encourage others to do the same.

Curious what your total carbon footprint is? The Nature Conservancy has created a Carbon Footprint calculator. 

You might also like: 5 Things You Can Do to Save the Ocean

The post 4 Steps to Reduce Your Carbon Footprint appeared first on Earth.Org.

In the ongoing battle against climate change, women have emerged as powerful agents of change, driving innovative solutions and inspiring transformative actions. This article sheds light on the remarkable achievements of ten women who have made significant contributions in combating the global climate crisis.

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Although women roughly make up half of the global population and are more vulnerable to climate change due to cultural, social, and economic factors, many women are leading the fight to protect our environment.

While not exhaustive, this list includes ten women who are tirelessly working to lead the fight against climate change through action, policy, and education.

10 Women Leading in the Fight Against Climate Change

1. Elizabeth May 

Leader of the Green Party of Canada

May is a Canadian environmentalist, lawyer, and politician. She is currently serving as the leader of the Green Party of Canada, and previously covered the same position from 2006 to 2019. This makes her the longest-running female leader of a Canadian federal party. A driving force between indigenous and environmental issues alike, she has recently come out of retirement to ensure that Canada is committed to their targets set in the 2015 Paris Agreement. 

“We should face the science clear-eyed with a serious intent that acknowledges we cannot afford to hit the snooze button on this report because this time the scientists are telling us that 1.5°C is far more dangerous than we thought it was,” May said in a statement to the House of Commons.

Throughout her career, her moral compass has not swayed nor has she sacrificed her values to get ahead. She has been a powerful advocate for the environment and marginalised communities. She is a climate change realist who pushes back on Canada’s MPs. In a 2023 interview with Global News, May said Canada is in a “new kind of climate denial by continuing to push policies that won’t meet international obligations to reduce carbon emissions.”

2. Marina Silva

Minister of Environment and Climate Change, Brazil

Speaking at the 28th Conference of the Parties, COP28, Silva discussed the importance of prioritising the environment and pushed developed countries to set an example. Experiencing the deforestation of Brazil’s rainforests firsthand, Silvia has become a driving force for change in Brazil.  

In the 1980s, Silvia became one of the architects of a grassroots resistance group against deforestation of the tropical rainforests and indigenous lands in Brazil. The efforts resulted in the protection of two million hectares of forests and the livelihoods of hundreds of indigenous people. 

As Brazil’s Minister of Environment and Climate Change, Silva has helped push for several bills and regulations to protect the Amazon and prevent deforestation, such as the Public Forest Management Bill and the Atlantic Forest Bill. These frameworks helped reduce deforestation rates by 84% between 2004 and 2012. 

Following Brazil president Jair Bolsonaro’s defeat in Brazil’s 2022 presidential elections, Lula announced Silva’s return as Minister of the Environment. Since their appointment, deforestation in the Amazon has decreased exponentially.

3. Kimiko Hirata

Executive Director at Climate Integrate, Japan

Hirata is an environmentalist who catalysed the fight against coal in Japan after the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011. Following the accident, the country planned to build coal plants for energy generation. Motivated to stop this, Hirata published a study on the implications of coal pollution, networked with communities near the proposed coal plants, and worked with local politicians and journalists, eventually successfully preventing 13 planned coal plants from being built and thus averting an estimated 42 million tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year from being released into the atmosphere. In 2021, she was awarded the Goldman Environmental Prize for her environmental work.

4. Eleni Myrivili 

United Nations Chief Heat Officer, Greece

In 2021, Myrivili became the United Nations’s first Chief Heat Officer. Her goal is to increase awareness of the implications of climate change, specifically extreme heat. As the former deputy mayor for Urban Nature and Climate Resilience (2014-2019) in Athens, Greece – a heatwave-prone country – she has promoted climate action projects and worked tirelessly to make cities more sustainable by introducing urban green spaces and securing funding for these important projects. 

You might also like: How Cities Around the World Are Tackling the Urban Heat Crisis

5. Dayle Takitimu

Co-Chair, Ministerial Advisory Committee, Aotearoa (New Zealand)

Takitimu is an indigenous rights and environmental lawyer, the co-chair on the Ministerial Advisory Committee in Te Whānau ā Apanui – a Māori iwi located in the eastern Bay of Plenty and East Coast regions of Aotearoa’s North Island – as well as Head of School at Toihoukura in Gisborne. Her climate change expertise and drive to fight for indigenous and environmental issues has given her the ability to lead Aotearoa (New Zealand) with integrity. Additionally, Takitimu took on a 40-day protest against Petrobras, a Brazilian petroleum company, successfully preventing a planned exploration of Te Whānau a Apanui deep sea territories for oil extraction. 

6. Dorte Krause-Jensen

Professor, Aarhus University, Denmark

Krause-Jensen is a professor in the Department of Ecoscience – Marine Ecology at Aarhus University, Denmark. She is helping to quantify carbon stocks in natural landscapes – in other words, quantify the amount of carbon sequestration – that occur in natural environments – particularly marine environments – with the goal of developing nature-based climate solutions. Specifically, her work involved the role of macroalgae in marine carbon sequestration and the net primary production in coastal environments.

You might also like: How the Climate Justice Movement Could Solve Global Gender Inequalities

7. Catherine Sarah Young

Artist, designer, and writer, Philippines/Australia

Young is a Filipino artist based in Australia. Intersecting science, art, and design, she uses perception to communicate the reality of climate change, and call for action. In her 2016 piece, “The Sewer Soaperie”, she used sewer water to make soap. This piece was a statement after one of the most powerful tropical cyclones in the world hit the Philippines in 2013, killing at least 6,300 people. Flooding as a result of the cyclone caused sewer systems to overflow. Young’s art piece highlighted how many cities are not equipped with the infrastructure to support the rate of climate change. 

In her 2014 piece, “The Ephemeral Marvels Perfume Store”, she made perfumes of scents that are set to be lost due to anthropogenic climate change, including coffee, coasts, honey, wine, and ice. This piece is intended for humans to link the scent to memories and motivate them to act to preserve the climate. Another great example is the 2021 artwork “The Weighing of the Heart”, where Young made a human heart sculpture out of remains from the Australian bushfires. 

8. Melina Laboucan-Massimo

Founder of Sacred Earth Solar & Co-Founder and Senior Director of Indigenous Climate Action, Canada

Laboucan-Massimo is the founder of Sacred Earth Solar, a company dedicated to bringing renewable energy to indigenous communities across Canada. She is also the co-founder and Senior Director of Indigenous Climate Action (ICA), which incorporates indigenous knowledge and rights into climate change solutions. Specifically, Laboucan-Massimo and ICA have given indigenous peoples a voice in the climate debate by conducting research and publishing several publications, including Decolonising Climate Policy in Canada and Indigenous-led Climate Policy. 

9. Nicola Kagoro (“Chef Cola”)

Chef, Zimbabwe

Kagoro, better known as Chef Cola, is a vegan chef from Zimbabwe with the goal to bring vegan culture to the country by providing creative and affordable plant-based food solutions to her community. She recently spoke at the UN climate summit in COP28 in Dubai about the importance of vegan diets and their significantly smaller greenhouse gas emissions compared to carnivorous diets. “The vegan lifestyle accounts for 75 percent less in greenhouse gas emissions than those who eat more than 3.5 KG [kilograms] of meat a day. If this is not a clear solution for a global problem I can not see a better way forward,” she said. 

10. Winnie Cheche

Climate activist, Kenya

Last but not least on our list of women leading the fight against climate change is Winnie Cheche, a conservationist, environmental blogger, and communication lead at Kenya Environmental Action Network (KEAN) – a grassroots community promoting environmental protection and policies. Her goal is to educate Kenyan youth and promote the importance of sustainability, conservation, and climate action through her blogs. She stands by the belief that “we are custodians of nature and that it is our duty to protect it.”

Featured image: Marina Silva. Photo: Talita Oliveira/Flickr

You might also like: 10 Young Climate Activists Leading the Way on Global Climate Action

The post 10 Women Leading the Fight Against Climate Change appeared first on Earth.Org.

As climate changes and global food security deteriorate, entomophagy will become an essential practice. Crickets provide high nutritional content and have a low environmental impact, which makes them great allies in the fight against climate change.

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The practice of entomophagy – humans eating insects for nutrition – has increased in popularity across the globe in recent years. Insect consumption is highest in tropical countries, where warmer climates help insects thrive, as well as in countries that face food scarcity. 

In the Western world, insect consumption has always been intended for animal feed, though the trend is slowly picking up among humans, too. Currently, meat consumption is highest in the Western world and has increased from an average 62 kilograms (kg) per capita to 96kg per capita in just half a century. The increase in meat consumption rates has severe environmental impacts, adding to the pressure to find sustainable food alternatives.

Among all insects, interest has picked up particularly for crickets due to their high nutritional content, minimal environmental impact, and ability to provide food security.

You might also like: Insect Farming: The Sustainable Future of Food Production with FlyFarm

Nutritional Content

Crickets are rich in macronutrients (i.e., protein, fat, carbohydrates) and micronutrients (i.e., vitamins and minerals). Protein from crickets has been reported to be as high as 62 to 71 grams per 100 grams of dry weight versus animal livestock at 27 grams per 100 grams of dry weight.

In addition to the high protein content, crickets are also high in vitamins A, B, C, D, E, and K and minerals such as calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, sodium, iron, zinc, manganese, and copper. 

These macro- and micronutrients provide essential nourishment to humans. 

Environmental Impact

Crickets have a low environmental impact due to the lower methane emission generation compared to cattle, small land footprint, and high food conversion rate. Compared to cattle, crickets produce 80% less methane, a potent greenhouse gas that has more than 80 times the warming power of carbon dioxide over the first 20 years after it reaches the atmosphere.

More about methane: The Importance of Addressing Planet-Warming Methane Emissions in the Energy Sector

Additionally, crickets and other insects eat organic waste, which helps reduce the overall amount of greenhouse emissions that would have occurred if the waste would have rotten naturally. 

Cricket farms have a significantly smaller land footprint than animal livestock farms. For instance, a farm of 700 crickets can live in a 70-litre container compared to one cow that needs approximately one acre (0.4 hectares) to graze. If demand for cricket farms increased and demand for livestock grazelands decreased, there could be land opportunities to convert degraded grazelands into vegetated areas.

Crickets also have a high food conversion rate, meaning they need “six times less feed than cattle, four times less than sheep, and twice less than pigs and broiler chickens to produce the same amount of protein,” according to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

In addition to their high conversion rate they also have a short lifespan and high reproduction rate. The lifespan of a cricket is 60 to 70 days, during which the insect transforms from egg to nymph and then adult. During this lifespan, one female cricket can produce anywhere between 200 to 1,500 eggs. The short lifespan and high production rate make these insects an ideal food source for maintaining global food security.

The Time Has Come

The small land footprint, high nutritional value, and quick lifecycle make this insect a desirable food source that can help combat growing global food insecurity. While it might take a while before people around the world, and especially in Western countries, start adding insects to their diet, the need to find more sustainable food sources has never been so urgent.

You might also like: Why Global Food Security Matters in 2023

The post Crickets Can Help Us Curb Global Warming and Enhance Food Security: Here’s How appeared first on Earth.Org.

Climate change is putting a strain on food systems. Understanding the water footprint of the food you buy and eat will help you make sustainable choices when grocery shopping.

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Climate change is making droughts and other extreme weather events longer, more frequent and severe. An increase in drought severity will put strain on our food systems and threaten food security. As part of our ‘What Can I Do’ series, this article will help you navigate your water footprint when you are at the grocery store/

What Is a Water Footprint?

The food we consume has a water footprint – a measure of the amount of water required to produce the food we eat. Our food systems rely on blue, green, and grey water consumption to provide us with groceries we consume. 

Blue water is water from lakes, rivers, and aquifers. It is the amount of freshwater used. Green water is soil water that is readily available for plants. It is the amount of rainwater used. Grey water is the indicator of pollution associated with the supply chain of a product and refers specifically to the amount of polluted runoff water. 

It is important to differentiate and understand the amount of water and the type of water used in the food lifecycle. 

The Water Footprint of Food

Meat

Beef, pork, and poultry have a high water footprint. This high water footprint is due to the water required to grow the feed, water for the animals to drink, and water used for cleaning of the livestock farm and slaughterhouse. Of the three water components that go into the meat lifecycle, the water required to grow the feed has the largest water footprint. For instance, to produce one kilogram (kg) of beef, 13kg of grain and 30kg of hay are needed to feed the cow, both requiring over 105,000 litres of water to produce.

Animal feed contributes to 38% of the total water footprint with many of the crops having a large blue and grey water footprint. In other words, animal feed contributes to a decrease in blue water, depleting freshwater resources and an increase in grey water, increasing the amount of polluted runoff water.

Dairy

Similar to meat, dairy has a high water footprint due to water required to grow the feed for the dairy cows, water for the dairy cows to drink, and water used to clean the farm and harvest production. A study found that dairy uses an average of 1.36 cubic metres of water/kg of milk produced, composed of over 68% green water and over 30% blue water. This means that a higher proportion of the water footprint from dairy is reliant on rainwater and the remaining is reliant on freshwater. As climate change accelerates drought, these freshwater sources will make it harder to produce dairy. 

Nuts

Tree nuts (e.g., almonds and cashews) and groundnuts (e.g., peanuts) are water intensive crops with a large water footprint per unit mass of protein. An article published in 2020 discusses the global average water footprint of tree nuts and groundnuts combined is over 157,000 million cubic metres/year. Cashews have the largest overall water footprint at over 27,000 million cubic metres/year, with over 6% being blue water and over 93% green water. Groundnuts have the highest blue water footprint at 5,107 million cubic metres/year. These values indicate that nuts have a large impact on the global freshwater supply. 

How to Navigate

Although there is yet to be a one-all solution, there is an environmental impact labelling system being developed to help consumers navigate the grocery store to make sustainable choices.

“Traffic-Light” Lables 

Currently in the testing stage, food system specialists are developing a “traffic-light” labelling system to provide information on the environmental impact foods have. This front-of-pack labelling would include the impacts of greenhouse gases and the water footprint it takes to produce, manufacture, and distribute the food products. It is designed to provide a simple infographic lettered A, in green, as lowest environmental impact and E, in red, as highest environmental impact. This simple design makes it easy for consumers to easily see the impact their food choices have and help guide them to make more sustainable decisions.

Until the “traffic-light” label design is introduced into grocery stores, it is imperative that consumers take the time to understand the amount of water required to produce foods. Understanding the water footprint can help you choose products from farms that promote sustainable practices. 

Climate change will threaten water resources and foods with a high water footprint will become more challenging to produce. Sustainable practices throughout the food lifecycle and consumer awareness will be imperative in navigating global food security. 

You might also like: World Food Day 2023: Why Global Food Security Matters in 2023

The post An Easy Guide to Sustainable Grocery Shopping appeared first on Earth.Org.

Food security is essential for human success. Researchers are bioengineering climate-resilient crops to provide food system solutions. 

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Food Security & Crop Stresses

Based on the International Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) Special Report on Food Security, climate change is threatening food security. It is threatening food systems (i.e., crops) through warmer temperatures and extreme weather events. Warmer temperatures have triggered an increased spread of pests and diseases, negatively impacting crop production. 

Under current greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, it is estimated that half of all insects will advance their distribution range by 50% by 2100. Insects are commonly classified as pests which can carry disease and infect crops. This means that a greater distribution of insects has potential to threaten 50% more landmass than they currently occupy. 

Warmer temperatures make environments more favourable for pathogens like fungi to grow. A Nature article published in 2023 argues that fungal disease has led to a global loss of 10% to 23% of crops per year and, owing to the rapidly worsening climate crisis, the disease is expected to spread even more in the coming years. Indeed, warming temperatures will make it easier for fungal disease to spread poleward, decreasing crop yield. Threats to global crop production lead to higher food prices and increased hunger rates.

You might also like: 3 Biggest Threats to Global Food Security

The Essentials

Globally, over 40% of the global population’s caloric intake comes from three essential crops: wheat, rice, and maize. As global temperatures increase, so does the chance of crop failure. Crop failure is when temperatures are too high for the plant to pollinate, resulting in death. 

For instance, the following fail temperatures of food crops for the three essential crops are: 

• Wheat 34C/93F
• Rice 35C/95F
• Maize 35C/95F

If wheat crops experience temperatures at or above 34C (93F), it will die. If rice or maize crops experience temperatures at or above 35C (95F), it will die. 

Warming temperatures are threatening a large portion of the global population’s caloric intake. Additionally, as anthropogenic forcing increases carbon dioxide concentrations it alters crop growth and nutritional content. Specifically, crops like grain and legumes contain less zinc and iron when exposed to higher concentrations of carbon dioxide in the air. 

Although the global food system is at risk, it has sparked innovation for researchers to bioengineer climate-resilient crops. 

Building Resilience Through Bioengineering 

Researchers are finding ways to bioengineer climate-resilient crops. Two ways resiliency is being conducted is through pikobodies and synthetic genetic circuits.

One example of bioengineered crop resiliency is summarised in a Nature article. Researchers found a way to develop synthetic immune receptors in plants known as pikobodies. Pikobodies are defined as “confer plant disease resistance.” To produce this synthetic immune response, pikobodies are fused with plants to provide an adaptive immune system to be resistant to disease (e.g., rusts or blights) and pathogens (e.g., bacterium, viruses, and fungi). Pikobodies can help strengthen essential crops to fight infection and build resilience.

The second example of bioengineered crop resiliency was developed at Stanford University. Researchers are using synthetic genes called “synthetic genetic circuits” to modify vegetation growth patterns to adapt to climate change. These genetic circuits help plants grow specific root systems and leaf structures to adapt to the stresses that climate change is bringing. Additionally, the specific root and leaf structure help the plant to efficiently grow by absorbing nutrients and water from the soil. Overall, the aim of research is to “make the engineering of plants much more precise” and provide crop security in a changing climate.

Conclusion

Warming temperatures, extreme weather events as well as pests and diseases are threatening our food systems, making it more urgent than ever to find ways to safeguard global food security. Using pikobodies and synthetic genetic circuits, bioengineers and researchers can advance crop resiliency through adaptive immune systems and modified growth pattern efficiency. Building crop resilience through bioengineering will be a crucial facet in our food systems as climate changes.

You might also like: The Future of Farming: Can We Feed the World Without Destroying It?

The post Bioengineering Climate-Resilient Crops to Safeguard Global Food Security appeared first on Earth.Org.

Voluntary carbon markets have experienced several obstacles along the way. But like for any nascent ecosystem, it takes time to adapt and refine standards in order to help government, industry, and individuals reach carbon neutrality.

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In order to reach the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Paris Agreement targets and prevent the global average temperature increase from surpassing 1.5C, government, industry, and individuals must reduce, avoid, and phase-out emissions completely. One way to achieve this is through voluntary carbon markets (VCM). 

What Are Voluntary Carbon Markets?

Unlike the regulatory compliance market – a result of policy or regulatory requirements – the voluntary carbon market (VCM) incentivises project developers (governments, industries, and individuals)  to reach net zero through reduction (i.e., changing land management practices), avoidance (i.e., switching to renewable energy) or removal (i.e, revegetating an area to sequester carbon) of greenhouse gases (GHG); it promotes co-benefits and encourages achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). 

In a paper published in ScienceDirect, Spilker & Nugent describe VCMs as “an ecosystem of self-regulating standard-setting organisations and certifiers.” These markets set competitive applicability conditions (standards) for project developers to submit a project activity for approval. Project activities include – but are not limited to – afforestation & reforestation (A/R), improved forest management (IFM), improved weatherization on buildings, or improved agricultural practices. Upon approval, projects are listed on a VCM registry where they must be monitored throughout the crediting period. Credits are issued through the registry based on the amount of tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent that is being reduced, avoided, or removed from the atmosphere as a result of a project activity.

Since their introduction a few decades ago, VCMs have experienced some obstacles. Whereas carbon market transparency and carbon reduction standards were once lacking, they have now become more refined.

During the COP21 summit in 2015, government leaders discussed the imperfections surrounding VCMs. The goal of the discussion was to promote countries and industries to be transparent within VCMs and develop a global standardisation to help guide VCMs. To establish transparency and a global standardisation, the Paris rulebook was composed. Upon completion at COP26 in 2021, the Paris rulebook provided VCMs a framework for project activity standards, fostering transparency between project developer and VCMs before credit issuance. 

The most established VCM registries are Verified Carbon Standard (VCS), Climate Action Reserve (CAR), American Carbon Registry (ACR), and Gold Standard. Each of these registries provides competitive applicability conditions that must be met before the crediting period and complied with throughout the crediting period. 

What Do Voluntary Carbon Markets Do?

Net zero can be achieved through a variety of project activities including change in agricultural management practices (i.e., promoting no-till practices to avoid GHG emissions) or converting barren land into a created forest (i.e., planting trees in an area of no recent tree cover – a practice known as afforestation – to sequester carbon from the atmosphere). 

VCMs registries encourage project activities to include co-benefits and SDGs by providing additional credits when included. Co-benefits include additional environmental, economic, or social benefits while SDGs are specific types of co-benefits. For example, an entity looking to reforest/afforest land has the possibility to generate environmental co-benefits through providing new habitats for animal and insect species (SDG15: Life on Land). Additionally, an entity could introduce a social co-benefit by hiring a higher proportion of women to plant trees (SDG5: Gender Equality).

Are Voluntary Carbon Markets Beneficial?

VCMs help major polluters offset GHG emissions and create innovative ways to solve the climate crisis. An article by HSBC argues that “the voluntary carbon market can be an incredible force for good that can help us accelerate the transition to a net zero economy.” 

The force of good that VCMs can offer is providing offset solutions to major polluting industries. For instance, the VMC Verra has issued over 1.1 billion verified carbon credits consisting of over 2,000 project activities around the world and has been used in over 88 countries. A large sector that emits GHG is transportation. Verra has created a project activity standard where entities can be issued carbon credits through installation of electric vehicle charging stations.

As VCMs adapt and refine standards, they provide incentive for government, industry, and individuals to change behaviour and promotes innovation for our global emissions to reach net zero. 

You might also like: Is Carbon Offset a Form of Greenwashing?

The post The Benefits of Voluntary Carbon Markets appeared first on Earth.Org.

The carbon tax in British Columbia was introduced in 2008 to curb greenhouse gas emissions. 15 years since its implementation, has the province seen a reduction in emissions? An analysis of British Columbia’s Emissions Inventory and literature paints a picture of the results.

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What Is a Carbon Tax and How Does It Work?

The first of its kind to be introduced in North America, the carbon tax in British Columbia was implemented in 2008 by Premier Gordon Campbell to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions at a starting price of CA$10 per tonne of emissions. 

Presently, the rate has increased to $50 CAD per tonne of emissions and is scheduled to keep increasing each year. Both businesses and individuals are responsible for paying tax on GHG emissions, which applies to purchased and used fuels and combustibles burned to produce energy or heat, including liquid fuels (i.e., gasoline), gaseous fuels (i.e., propane), soil fuels (i.e., coal), and combustibles (i.e., peat). 

For example, a person will be required to pay a tax when they fuel their gasoline engine at 11.05 cents/litre and use propane to heat their home at 10.06 cents/litre. 

To put this into perspective, an average vehicle tank holds about 55 litres of gasoline, meaning it would cost the driver approximately $6.08 per fill in carbon tax. Similarly, to heat a 140-square-metre home using a propane furnace requires approximately 210 litres of propane each month, resulting in $21.13/month in carbon tax. 

To ease this tax on low- and middle-income households, the province initiated a Climate Action Tax Credit to reimburse households on the carbon tax. Such households are reimbursed a Climate Action Tax credit at $193.50 per adult and $56.50 per child (as of the increase July 1, 2022).

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Is the Carbon Tax Reducing Emissions In British Columbia?

Based on the Provincial Inventory of Greenhouse Gas Emissions, net emissions in 2008 were 65.8 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (MtCO2e) compared to 64.6 MtCO2e in 2020. This has resulted in nearly a 2% decrease over 12 years since the tax was first implemented. But is this really enough? 

In 2013, a study compared BC’s per capita consumption of taxable fuels to the rest of Canada between 2008 and 2013. The study found that BC’s taxable fuels had declined by 19% compared to the rest of Canada while keeping its economic standing comparable to the country. Although the carbon tax is changing behaviour and encouraging green initiatives, there are still research gaps to determine if this tax is mitigating climate change and if its leading to emissions to be leaked elsewhere.

According to a 2015 study conducted by the University of Ottawa and Duke University, there has been cause for concern with research gaps since the carbon tax has been implemented. First, they had noted that there is a research deficiency to determine whether the carbon tax is mitigating climate change. For example, BC’s forestry industry has suffered greatly from climate change from the mountain pine beetle that feeds on tree tissues to forest fires, costing the province an average of $316.9 million per year.

But because of data deficiencies, it is hard to determine whether the carbon tax is actually mitigating these actions. Moreover, there is not enough research to determine whether the carbon tax has resulted in leakage of GHGs, “where observed emissions reductions in BC are associated with emissions increase elsewhere” – in other words, where there is unintentional emissions elsewhere due to an economic sector being sourced elsewhere. For example, GHG emissions could be seeing a reduction in heavy industry (i.e., mining and smelting) due to resources being outsourced to other provinces or countries. 

Overall, the carbon tax is a step in the right direction for effectively reducing GHG emissions. However, a higher price on emissions would further reduce emissions and thus curb climate change. Additionally, in depth research needs to be conducted to quantify exactly how much the carbon tax is mitigating climate change in BC and determine if leakage is occurring as a result of the carbon tax. 

More on the topic: Carbon Tax Pros and Cons

The post Analysing the Effectiveness of a Carbon Tax in British Columbia appeared first on Earth.Org.

Underneath our feet is an undervalued and underestimated capacity for carbon storage: soil organic carbon. Understanding the Earth’s processes and implementing proper land use management will provide a key component in mitigating climate change.

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What Is Soil Organic Carbon?

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is a component of Earth’s biosphere in the soil. More specifically, the term refers to the measurable amount of soil organic matter (SOM) in the top zero to 10 centimetres of soil. SOM is composed of microbes (bacteria & fungi), decaying plant and animal material, faecal matter, and decomposition products. SOC is the product of carbon dioxide being stored in the soil through photosynthesis, primarily through plants.

In addition to the soil providing homes to small and large organisms and helping plants grow, it is an important facet of halting global warming. Soil is crucial in mitigating changes in our climate as it holds more carbon than land vegetation and the atmosphere combined. To fully understand how soil stores carbon, we break down how each facet works.

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The Process

Increasing carbon storage in the soil from the atmosphere is dependent on photosynthesis, decomposition, and respiration in ecosystem processes. During photosynthesis, plants intake carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to convert into energy to grow. This is the predominant process in which carbon is stored in the soil as SOC. During decomposition, biomass, a byproduct of plants and animals, is broken down by soil microbes. During photosynthesis and decomposition, plant and microbes respire. Despite carbon dioxide being emitted during the respiration process, the amount is lower than that being stored. 

The Composition 

SOC is made up of organic matter whose composition is dependent on soil type, climate as well as land and soil management. These variables can help lead to carbon being sequestered and take a natural approach to mitigating climate change. 

Soil type, the makeup of soil consisting of sand, clay, and silt, influences how much organic matter is in the soil. Clay in soil acts as a blanket for the organic matter found in it, limiting the amount of decomposition and respiration from microbes and other organisms from breaking it down. Sandy soils, on the contrary, do not protect the organic matter in the soil from being broken down by microbes and other organisms. 

In addition to soil type, climate also influences SOC. Climate variables, precipitation and temperature influence both the moisture availability in the soil (precipitation dependant) and the rate at which organic matter decomposes in the soil (temperature dependant). The right amount of precipitation acts as a transport system for nutrients to be carried from the soil into the plant to help it grow. And the greater the plant growth, the greater the amount of SOM. 

Same goes for temperature. Any decrease results in organic matter decomposing at a slower rate. For example, a study in Western Australia found that “under moist conditions, each 10C increase in temperatures doubles the rate of organic matter decomposition.” 

One last factor influencing SOC levels is soil and land management. As the first 10 centimetres of soil represents a large proportion of SOM, proper land and soil management are imperative. These can influence the amount of organic matter in the soil by putting mitigative measures in to prevent soil erosion, adding manure and/or straw to increase the SOM content, and understanding the quantity of water crops require to prevent runoff. 

SOC Influence on Climate

Agricultural land covers over one-third of the global land area. Such large proportion of global land area has the potential, with proper land and soil management, to enhance SOC which increases the capacity to sequester carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and help reduce anthropogenic influence on climate. Unfortunately, current agricultural practices are deteriorating soil health. 

Although current agricultural practices are deteriorating soil health, actions can be taken to mitigate these effects, increase SOC, and enhance carbon sequestration. For example, this can be achieved through less intensive tilling, cover crops, and perennial crops. 

Intensive tilling of soils decreases the amount of SOC being stored as it exposes the soil to microbial decomposition, resulting in an increased amount of carbon being released back into the atmosphere. Cover crops, such as peas and clover, are planted after the main crop harvest to help increase the uptake of carbon into the soil. Perennial crops, which are present during all seasons of the year, are able to establish deep root systems. Deeper root systems and year-round growth gives these crops an advantage to store more carbon in the soil than annual crops. 

Conclusion

Understanding the potential of the natural world and implementing proper land and soil management practices will be a key component in mitigating climate change. 

In particular, applying less intensive tilling of soils, planting cover crops and perennial crops, and adopting other such agricultural practices will help increase the amount of SOC, which is essential to improve soil health, reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and improve food security. 

You might also like: The Private Sector Must Prioritise Investments in Soil Health

The post The Role of Soil Organic Carbon in Fighting Climate Change appeared first on Earth.Org.

As companies around the world are striving to meet net zero emissions to avert the climate crisis, indigenous communities in the Amazon rainforest are falling victim to carbon piracy.

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Carbon Markets

The rapidly deteriorating climate crisis has prompted companies to invest in carbon markets to offset their emissions in hopes to achieve net-zero emissions. Currently, there are two types of carbon markets: compliance credits and voluntary offset markets. 

Compliance markets are regulatory requirements or legally binding set by local, national, and international policy. At the national level, the European Union makes it a requirement for high-consuming energy sectors to participate in the Emission Trading System to offset emissions that cannot be mitigated at this point in time. 

Voluntary offset markets allow companies, organisations, and individuals (also referred to as entities) to voluntarily buy carbon credits to offset emissions. Additionally, entities can be listed in a carbon registry to obtain credit for climate-friendly practices such as land use and forestry. The voluntary offset markets allow for entities to be on either side: to buy carbon credits to offset emissions or to sell carbon credits due to climate friendly practices. 

If you want to read more about this topic, check out this article next: Can the Voluntary Carbon Market Help Improve Sustainability in Developing Countries?

What Is Carbon Piracy?

In the voluntary offset market, a particular process known as Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+) has caught the attention of so called “carbon pirates”.

REDD+ was created by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to guide forest sector practices to reduce emissions from forest degradation and to implement sustainable forest activities. 

Unfortunately, Indigenous communities in the Amazon, particularly in Peru and Columbia, are being manipulated into signing their land over to Western companies, as the latter seek to secure deals in these areas for offsetting projects, making them carbon pirates. 

Carbon pirates seek countries abundant in ecological biodiversity, exploiting non-English speaking communities to sign rights over to them. This phenomenon was observed especially in countries such as Papua New Guinea, Africa, and Indonesia. Carbon pirates came into these nations to set up REDD+ carbon offsetting and communities were coerced into signing agreements that did not fit their best interests.

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Carbon Piracy: Voices From Indigenous Communities

In September 2022, The Guardian interviewed Amazon Indigenous representatives from last year’s COP27 and COP15 summits to hear their voice on the ‘carbon piracy’ happening in their communities. 

The Kichwa Community in Peru’s Amazon had an $87 million carbon agreement with an undisclosed company in the extractive industry but were never delivered the money and claimed to be forced from their lands, the Cordillera Azul National Park, a protected area in Peru’s Ucayali tropical rainforest ecoregion. Although Indigenous peoples have been on this land for many years, the government isn’t recognising all of it as Indigenous lands, leading to “a potential mass land grab and conflict.” 

In an interview with The Guardian, Indigenous leader Fany Kuiru Castro of the Uitoto community in the Colombian Amazon commented on how the majority of territories she visits within Colombia are connected with a carbon related company.

Castro explains that these carbon related companies “promise big money” once the Indigenous community agrees upon a project. In some carbon offset projects, agreements prevent Indigenous communities from hunting and fishing – vital activities for these groups – as they do not have access to their land.

Carbon pirates are invading their territory, taking advantage of Indigenous communities that are non-English speaking, and pressuring Indigenous people to sign English legal documents, explained Castro. 

Wilfredo Tsamash, an Indigenous member of Peru’s Awajan community, is striving to learn more about carbon markets to prevent their community from falling victim to carbon piracy. Tsamash explained that carbon pirates are attempting to wedge communities apart by “working in the background” and offering monetary value for carbon credits before considering how Indigenous communities interact and depend on the land. He believes that carbon credits should not be sold to oil and mining firms as “they are the ones doing the damage.” 

Final Thoughts

These voices of Indigenous representatives should be heard. There is only one Earth and humanity should be working together to protect it not taking advantage of others. Despite accounting for less than 5% of the world’s population, Indigenous people manage over 25% of the world’s land surface, and support 80% of the world’s biodiversity. Thus, as Daniel Kaul writes on Earth.Org: “As we look to protect our planet over the next decade, we cannot afford to ignore the role that indigenous people and local communities can and do play in the conservation of our most precious, biodiverse lands.” 

You might also like: Indigenous People Are Essential for Preventing Biodiversity Loss. They Mustn’t Be Sidelined.

The post How Indigenous Communities Are Falling Victim to Carbon Piracy appeared first on Earth.Org.