In the face of the escalating environmental crisis, attention is turning towards solutions that address multiple challenges. One such avenue of research is the positive relationship between megafauna conservation, biodiversity recovery, and carbon balance. This article examines the ways in which restoring and conserving large mammal populations can also help to mitigate climate change and reduce the risk of fire-related emissions.

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The environmental crisis facing humankind needs little introduction. The twin pillars of climate change and biodiversity collapse are attracting increasing attention, yet insufficient action. With average global temperatures in 2023 at 1.45C higher than pre-industrial levels and an average global wildlife decline of 69% in the last 50 years, the need for bold action has never been more urgent. It is encouraging therefore to see that interest is growing in solutions which “align biodiversity conservation and recovery with climate change mitigations.” 

A 2022 research paper led by ecologists from Oxford University and Aarhus University has shown that, in a variety of biomes and ecosystems, restoring populations of free-roaming megafauna boosts biodiversity levels and dramatically improves carbon dioxide sequestration on conserved land. While there is no clear way to address the myriad environmental issues facing humanity, nature-based solutions that harness the potential of natural processes and use the biosphere’s built-in stabilising mechanisms can certainly help to address multiple challenges. 

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Restoring Megafauna

Given the extent (and continued expansion) of human activities, it comes as little surprise that wildlife populations are decreasing across the globe. However, data showing the global distribution of mammals is truly shocking. 

According to Our World in Data, humans make up 34% of global mammal biomass, while our livestock contributes a staggering 62%. This leaves us with the scarcely believable fact that wild mammals comprise just 4% of the mammal kingdom, and the number is falling. Such a situation poses grave threats to the future of existence, with some scientists warning that we may be on the brink of ecological tipping points which, once passed, will precipitate irrevocable ecosystem collapse. 

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Nevertheless, potential solutions are plentiful. 

For instance, the restoration of large populations of free-roaming megafauna comes with a range of benefits, helping not only to reverse biodiversity decline but also to reduce concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) while providing opportunities for local employment, education, and community engagement. 

Large herbivores, such as bison, buffalos, rhinos, and elephants, can be described as ecosystem engineers, creating disturbance, opening ecological niches, and assisting in seed dispersal. These species have often been considered destroyers of habitat, animals that damage the vegetation of an ecosystem to such an extent that they reduce the vegetation’s ability to draw down CO2.

However, this perception has been challenged by discoveries showing that large wild animals have a crucial role in climate change mitigation. Nowhere is this more true than in Sub-Saharan Africa, home to some of the last populations of numerous large herbivores. 

Fire Control 

Across many Sub-Saharan megafauna habitats, periodic, seasonal fires are a natural component of the ecosystem, often helping certain vegetation species to germinate and removing excess moribund material. However, the reduction in megafauna numbers in these areas has contributed to increased fuel biomass, frequently leading to much larger, more intense and longer-term burns. In many cases, controlled fire management serves to replicate lost natural processes, though this does not need to be the case if such work was undertaken naturally by megafauna. 

The dry winter grasslands of Southern Africa often act as a tinder stack, allowing fires to quickly get out of control. By conserving and restoring large herbivore species, a great deal of fire-mitigation work can happen naturally. For instance, buffalos, wildebeests, and white rhinos are bulk grazing species which crop grasses to a level typically too low to support fires, thereby reducing fire spread and intensity as well as the associated increase in CO2 emissions. 

Similarly, browsing species like black rhinos, giraffes, and kudus (a spiral–horned, ‘tragelaphus’ antelope) consume potential fuel materials and break up fuel continuity. In addition, large populations of herbivores dig and trample soil while creating trails, pathways, and wallows, all of which help form natural firebreaks and improve overall ecosystem resilience to fire. 

A variety of species is beneficial in fire control because different browsing heights, such as the difference between a giraffe and a nyala (another spiral-horned tragelaphus species), can help to reduce crown fires by breaking up vertical fuel continuity. Vertical fuel continuity refers to the unbroken structure of fuel biomass which can transfer fires from ground to canopy level.

Terrestrial Carbon Storage

The argument concerning megafauna and their impact on potential fuel biomass is logical and simple to observe. Perhaps more powerful in the battle against climate change, however, are the invisible benefits provided by large wild herbivores in terms of an increase in soil carbon stocks. 

This happens in two ways. 

First, carbon is transferred underground in the dung of herbivores. As they consume carbon-rich vegetation, much of this carbon is locked into their dung. Through decay and the activities of coprophagic (or faeces-eating) species, like dung beetles, the carbon is sequestered in the soil. However, it is important to note that not all herbivore species are equal in this regard. The four-chambered stomachs of ruminant species, including buffalos, giraffes and cattle (often farmed on formerly wild lands), produce a great deal of a planet-warming greenhouse gas known as methane. Nevertheless, the rougher digestive tracts of hind-gut fermenters, such as elephants, rhinos and zebras allow much greater quantities of carbon to pass through to their dung. Elephants, for instance, only digest around 40% of what they consume. 

Carbon sequestration can also occur if soil quality is improved. This allows greater and more persistent carbon storage capacity, and improved chances of vegetation growth. Vegetation that reaches a mature state helps maximise sequestration, thereby encouraging a positive feedback loop of carbon storage. A higher likelihood of vegetation reaching a mature state helps maximise sequestration. 

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Adaptation to Climate Change

A more nuanced benefit of megafauna is their effect on ecosystem adaptation to climate change, as identified in a 2022 paper. Large-scale disturbance helps increase habitat heterogeneity, creating niches for species of all sizes. It also leads to increased complexity of food webs, improving ecosystem resilience to change. 

Moreover, many species of vegetation have evolved alongside large herbivores and now rely on the herbivores for seed dispersal. This happens in several ways. 

The hair or fur of large mammals often catches seeds, which are then carried far and wide as the animals move to new areas. The digestive tract of hind-gut fermenters also serves as a transport mechanism, with the seeds of fruits often passing through undamaged and able to germinate in the nutrient-rich dung once defecated. Dispersal is essential for ecosystem success as it allows plant species to travel to areas where conditions may be more favourable and success rates higher. 

An Elephantine Effort

While the impact of a rising number of large herbivores is obvious, one is certainly worth investigating in more detail. Undoubtedly one of the most effective “keystone species” on the planet, elephants exert a disproportionately large impact on their immediate ecosystem. This is especially true in the context of climate change mitigation. 

Within a forest ecosystem, trees exist on a spectrum of carbon densities. Light wood species have low carbon densities, growing very quickly and out-pacing slower-growing trees in their pursuit of sunlight, while heavy wood species have a far higher carbon density and grow much more slowly. Importantly, heavy wood trees with higher carbon density are able to store more carbon in their wood, making them more favourable than light wood trees when it comes to climate change mitigation. 

Forest elephants affect the abundance of plant species on this spectrum by feeding demonstrably more heavily on the more palatable light wood species, thereby reducing fuel biomass while opening more favourable conditions for the heavy wood species to mature. By cutting back the forest, competition amongst trees is reduced, allowing heavy wood trees to flourish. 

The latter species has evolved to aid this process by typically producing large, highly palatable fruits. Elephants consume these fruits in large quantities, spreading the seeds of high carbon storage tree species more widely in the forest ecosystem when they defecate. This activity also helps transport the seeds of high carbon storage trees towards potentially better-suited growing conditions, improving growth chances.

Such is the impact of these “gardeners of the forest” that Professor Stephen Blake of Saint Louis University estimates that if elephants went extinct, the rainforests of Central and West Africa would “lose between six and nine percent of their ability to capture atmospheric carbon.”

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Finding the Land

It is important to note that there is no ubiquitous positive synergy between megafauna conservation and climate change mitigation. Yet, the science concerning the essential impact of large animal restoration is clear. Where appropriate, restoring populations of large mammals will not only help reinvigorate ecosystems and increase biodiversity levels but also assist in drawing down atmospheric CO2. 

However, this will require returning great quantities of land to nature across the globe – a task that can only be achieved with large-scale community engagement and benefits. Without these essential factors, any such project risks alienating locals and damaging communities. 

Fortunately, through initiatives like the commitment to save 30% of land and water by 2030 (also known as the “30-by-30” goal) reached at COP15 in 2022, recovering land for nature is on the agenda. If this planet’s land can be protected and large-scale animal conservation continues to find success, such plans will bring economic and social benefits to communities and assist with climate change mitigation, all whilst restoring and conserving wild species and their habitats. 

More on the topic: Animating the Carbon Cycle: Earth’s Animals Vital Allies in CO2 Storage

The post Reviving Giants: Examining Megafauna’s Role in Biodiversity and Carbon Balance  appeared first on Earth.Org.

Our current methods of industrial food production are wreaking environmental havoc while failing to provide the agricultural yields necessary to sustain the growing global population. The complexity of the issue demands a variety of responses. This article explores the future of farming by analysing various ways in which we can improve the sustainability of traditional farming and also in what way new, cutting-edge technologies can offer us the solution we desperately need to feed our world without destroying it.

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The Future of Farming

According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), a quarter of the global population “suffer from moderate or severe food insecurity”. If, as projections suggest, the world’s population reaches 10 billion by 2050, the question of how to feed the world will only grow in severity. Coupled with this situation is the fact that industrial farming is taking a huge environmental toll while failing to meet global food demand. 

In his new book ‘Regenesis’, George Monbiot describes farming as the “world’s greatest cause of environmental destruction”, adding that farmland sprawls across 30 times more land than urban areas. The issues posed by the rampant use of fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides, along with the depletion of aquifer water sources, overgrazing and loss of topsoil have been widely analysed and clearly lead to the conclusion that farming practices must change.

The nature and direction of these changes, however, are complex. In ‘The Politics of Green Transformations’, for instance, authors Ian Scoones, Melissa Leach, and Peter Newell caution that there is much at stake in the debate over what drives unsustainability. They emphasise the importance of asking, “who is to blame for what and how can we rebalance our existence in alignment with planetary boundaries?”

With this in mind, we must recognise that the notion of a single, “silver bullet” solution to address the issues created by industrial farming is a pipedream. As Scoones, Leach and Newall explain, a variety of pathways to sustainability, from technology-led and marketized to state-led or citizen-led, are available, and which one is most appropriate is largely contextual.

Technocentric pathways, from vertical farming to lab-grown meat, for instance, have been extolled as the “future of farming”. However, such technologies are not yet viable globally.

We must therefore embrace a mixed approach to agriculture, supporting the development of paradigm-shifting technologies while not forgetting the crucial benefits of low-tech, traditional and community-based farming practices.

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3 Examples of What the Future of Farming Looks Like

With the advent of ‘soilless’ farming (such as hydroponics and aeroponics) in the late 20th century, the seeds were sown for an agricultural revolution that decoupled production from the soil at scale. As we shall explore, numerous companies, organisations, and technologies have subsequently been developed which seek to boost yields while reducing their environmental impact.

1. Vertical Farming

The broad range of benefits derived from vertical farming has been well-documented, so we shall instead turn first to the specifics of Fischer Farms, a UK-based vertical farming company. Focussing primarily on leafy greens (such as rocket, watercress, chard, basil, dill and parsley), Fischer Farms ensures that the required nutrients are delivered to the plants by use of a water solution (hydroponics). Moreover, the plants are grown in a medium such as rockwool or perlite which takes the use of soil out of the equation. 

By carefully controlling the internal conditions of their facilities Fischer Farms are able to entirely remove pesticides, herbicides, or insecticides from production. Simultaneously, stacking their produce on multiple levels allows them to produce more harvests per year than field-grown crops. This means that one Fischer Farms vertical farm can produce in one acre the same amount of food that requires 250 acres of field-grown crops. Such production is essential for the resilience of our food systems as we look towards a future with increasingly severe weather.

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2. Data-Driven Hydroponic Farming

Similarly, AppHarvest, a US-based indoor farming operation, claims to be able to produce 30 times the tomato yield of conventional farms while using 90% less water. This is made possible by the use of 300 strategically placed monitors to measure the internal climate of the greenhouses and deliver precise levels of essential inputs from light to Carbon Dioxide (CO2). In addition, solar panels deliver clean energy to the greenhouses to power the operation. Crucially, by increasing agricultural yields while reducing demands on land, both Fischer Farms and AppHarvest are helping to facilitate a situation where we can continue to return marginal farmland to the wilderness.

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3. Carbon-Neutral Animal Feed

Taking on a different challenge of the agricultural industry, food chain pioneer Better Origin has developed a system to provide carbon-neutral animal feed as insect protein on-site. This is achieved by turning farm waste into larvae feed which is fed to insect larvae before they in turn become food for hens, pigs, fish, and more. 

The benefits of such a system are myriad. First, farm waste is used to its full extent instead of having to be removed or allowed to rot away. This creates a circular system, dramatically reducing inputs and wastage. Second, it removes the need to import foodstuff from elsewhere, thereby reducing the amount of CO2 that has gone into production – Better Origin calculate that their X1 (their flagship biomass converter) can save over 130 tons of CO2 each year. Moreover, it helps reduce demand for conventional feeds such as grain and soy which are grown on a vast and destructive scale. Estimates suggest that about one-third of all grain produced is used to feed livestock.

New Technologies Are What We Need, But It’s Too Early To Fully Rely on Them

However, as effective and inspirational as these technologies are, we must keep in mind that many are still in their early stages and are thus still costly and unfit for large-scale production. Despite their undeniable importance, we will not be able to rely on such companies to replace conventional farming until they are scaled up, thereby securing the operational efficiencies that will significantly reduce costs. This, however, can only happen if governments and the private sector understand the importance of investing in sustainable farming technologies. If these institutions take the lead, it is reasonable to suggest that private funding will follow. 

However, until these technologies are able to shoulder more of the burden and eventually replace conventional farming, we must consider how traditional farming can improve its industrial practices.

3 Ways To Increase the Sustainability of Traditional Farming

There are many ways to make traditional farming more environmentally friendly, from pasture-fed beef herds to community-organised urban permaculture.

1. Rewilding and Food Production

Our first case study here is the Knepp Estate in the UK. Towards the end of the last millennium, Charlie Burrell and Isabella Tree recognised that the intensive farming ethic was failing to produce enough yield from their farm to generate the profit to keep it running. They were thus strongarmed by reality into rewilding their 3,500 acres with astonishing results. 

As part of the project, a herd of longhorn cattle was introduced as a proxy for the now-extinct auroch. Such was the success of their breeding that soon their numbers had to be controlled, providing premium, organic beef with essentially zero feed or infrastructure costs. But the benefits of the project did not stop there. Chemical analysis of the meat produced from pasture-fed cattle showed far higher levels of vitamins A and E, alongside twice the levels of powerful antioxidants like selenium and beta-carotene. In addition, the newly invigorated ecosystem at Knepp, of which the longhorns were an integral part, began to sequester increasing amounts of CO2 as soil health continued to improve. Coupled with the eradication of feed imports, producing beef in this manner demonstrated that cows did not have to be an enemy of the climate.

2. Pasture-Fed Beef and Regenerative Agriculture

Patrick Holden, the co-founder of UK-based The Sustainable Food Trust (SFT) and US Sustainable Food Alliance, concurs with the findings at Knepp. A long-time advocate of sustainable farming practices, his cattle are rotated between pastures to prevent overgrazing and ensure the soil remains healthy. He is also at pains to point out that ruminants (including cattle) are the only animals that can digest the cellulose in grass and clover and are thus essential in transferring that energy up the trophic levels. When farmed at a smaller scale, in a regenerative manner, cattle can be a major benefit to ecosystems. 

This is a theme with which Simon Fairlie, a long-time eco-activist, has identified for decades. Referencing the SFT’s, “Feeding Britain from the Ground Up” report, Fairlie favours halving grain production, encouraging mixed organic farming, growing more pulses, and ensuring waste food and by-products are fed to livestock. Such measures are projected to “increase existing levels of food self-sufficiency, while allowing an extra 2.5 million hectares for tree planting and nature recovery”. Essentially, this is a call for more humane farming practices, major reductions in chemical inputs, and the return to regenerative agriculture.

3. Urban Permaculture

Shifting our focus away from traditional farming, the trend towards community-led urban farming projects has a significant role to play in reducing food miles, engaging people with food production, and tackling the issue of malnutrition in cities where fresh vegetables are few and far between. Taking Detroit as an example, ‘Keep Growing Detroit’, an organisation who promote and support food self-sufficiency in the city, estimate that 1,400 urban gardens and farms have sprung up. Not only do such projects ensure the availability of local fresh produce, but they also provide community ownership of the means of production and thereby transparency to the supply chain which is conspicuously lacking in the production of many industrial farming organisations. What’s more, engaging with the land has proven benefits to mental and physical health. Perhaps most importantly, urban farming and community projects diversify the source of food which is set to become an increasingly important trend as the climate continues to change.

Can We Feed theWorld Without Destroying It?

It is undeniable that modern industrial farming practices have brought environmental destruction across the developing world. Despite the obvious depredations in pursuit of higher yields, we are still falling short of feeding the world. If we are to succeed, we must embrace various solutions, from the top-down, technocentric to the community-led.

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The post The Future of Farming: Can We Feed the World Without Destroying It? appeared first on Earth.Org.

The significance of fungi in maintaining the intricate balance of life on our planet cannot be overstated. Found in a wide range of diverse environments, these remarkable organisms hold the key to maintaining the health and harmony of our ecosystems. From decomposing organic matter to forming symbiotic relationships with plants to carbon sequestration, fungi perform a myriad of essential functions that underpin the very foundation of life on our planet. Indeed, as mycologists continue to discover more about the extraordinary biochemical impacts of fungi, the evidence is piling up in favour of mycologist Paul Stamets’ observation that “mycelium is the neurological network of nature.” 

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Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling

Fungi are the ultimate recyclers in nature, breaking down complex organic matter and returning vital nutrients to the soil. By secreting powerful enzymes, they efficiently decompose dead plant and animal material, accelerating the natural process of decay. Through this decomposition process, fungi play a crucial role in nutrient cycling, ensuring the availability of essential elements like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus for other organisms. 

Without fungi, these vital nutrients would remain locked within dead matter, limiting their availability and hampering the growth of other organisms in the ecosystem. Moreover, as decomposers, saprophytic fungi help reduce the incidence of disease in mammal populations by effectively removing carcasses and carrion from the landscape, while their deconstruction of fallen trees, branches, and leaves keeps moribund material to a minimum. 

Symbiotic Relationships

Fungi forge fascinating partnerships with other organisms, forming mutually beneficial relationships known as symbiosis. 

One of the most remarkable examples is mycorrhizal associations, where fungi establish intricate networks with plant roots. In exchange for carbohydrates produced by the plant through photosynthesis, fungi enhance the plant’s ability to absorb water and nutrients from the soil. This symbiotic bond is estimated to be crucial for over 90% of plant species, enabling their survival, growth, and resilience in various ecosystems worldwide. Indeed, these fungal networks can connect the roots of different species of flora, further developing natural interdependence and drastically enhancing the diversity of the soil microbiome. When connected in such a manner, these networks are known as common mycorrhizal networks (CMNs), which are essential for the resilience of botanical systems because they facilitate the sharing and reconfiguration of water and nutrients by a whole community of plant species. 

Furthermore, endophytic fungi reside within the tissues of plants without causing harm, providing numerous benefits such as increased resistance to diseases and pests. These hidden allies contribute to the overall health and resilience of plant populations, playing an essential role in maintaining the stability and biodiversity of ecosystems.

A particularly salient example can be found in the recent study by Di Lelio and colleagues, who found that the resistance of certain tomato plants to pest insects is caused by a symbiotic soil fungus (Trichoderma afroharzianum) that alters the insect’s gut microbiome. In essence, the fungus affects the survival of the larvae of Spodoptera littorals, dramatically reducing the incidence of predation and crop destruction. Significantly, for regenerative farming, a greater understanding of the benefits wrought through these myriad examples of symbiosis will help us to eliminate the use of artificial chemical inputs to the food chain over time.  

From decomposing organic matter to forming symbiotic relationships with plants to carbon sequestration, fungi perform a myriad of essential functions that underpin the very foundation of life on our planet.

Ecological Balance and Conservation

Fungi act as regulators of ecological balance by interacting with other organisms, including bacteria, plants, and animals. They influence the population dynamics of various species, including insects, by serving as a food source or by producing compounds that attract or repel them. These highly diverse compounds have also been a major source of assistance to human populations in increasingly interesting ways. The use of fungi in pharmacology, such as antibiotics, saves millions of lives a year, while “fungi-derived leather substitutes” are gaining ground as alternative, ethical fabrics.

Additionally, certain fungi have symbiotic relationships with insects, such as ants and termites, aiding in nutrient cycling and the decomposition of plant materials. Indeed, to certain insect species, fungi have become essential for life. So-called “Fungus-Growing” termites lack the enzymes in their digestive systems to break down the cellulose in plant material. Fungus-Growers therefore actively cultivate fungi in their colony which externally digest cellulose, thereby releasing the previously inaccessible nutrients in the plant-derived material to the termites.

The ecological services provided by fungi extend beyond their direct interactions. Fungi contribute to soil formation, promoting its structure and fertility. They help control soil erosion, retain moisture, and enhance the soil’s ability to sequester carbon to the tune of 36% of annual CO2 emissions. They also have the capacity to break down pollutants and toxins, contributing to the detoxification of contaminated environments. As we start to restore the planet, the removal of toxic substances – including plastics – will be essential to liberating ecosystems from a legacy of human destruction and as we learn more about fungi, their potential to assist in this regard becomes more apparent. 

Conserving fungal diversity is of paramount importance, as it directly impacts the health and functioning of ecosystems. Unfortunately, habitat destruction, pollution, climate change, and invasive species pose significant threats to fungal populations worldwide. Recognising the value of fungi and implementing conservation strategies that protect their habitats is crucial for maintaining the delicate balance of our planet’s ecosystems. 

Conclusion

Fantastic Fungi, as Paul Stamets’ Netflix show is titled, is an apt description of this extraordinary kingdom. Their ability to decompose organic matter, form symbiotic relationships, regulate ecological balance, and contribute to nutrient cycling highlights their indispensability in the web of life. Understanding and appreciating the vital role of fungi is essential for promoting sustainable practices, protecting biodiversity, and ensuring the health and resilience of our ecosystems for generations to come. By acknowledging the hidden heroes beneath our feet, we can foster a deeper appreciation for the interconnectedness of all living organisms and strive for a more harmonious coexistence with nature. 

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The post Fungi: The Hidden Heroes of Ecosystems appeared first on Earth.Org.

In September 2022, wildlife rangers working at the Wilder Blean bison project near Canterbury in Kent, discovered a bison calf, the first born wild in the United Kingdom in thousands of years. Despite being totally extinct in the wild in the UK and Europe since the 20th century mainly because of habitat destruction and hunting, bison were able to cling on to survival through small captive herds in zoos. In recent years, they have been bred and released with quite some success in Poland, Belarus, Denmark, Russia, and further afield. Wild European bison populations are now thought to number over 9,000. Yet, their return to British shores has been much more recent and on a far smaller scale. 

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In July 2022, three female bison were released into woodlands near Canterbury in Kent in order to return the forest to a more natural and diverse habitat. It was subsequently discovered that one of the females introduced was already pregnant. As Tom Gibbs, one of the specialist bison rangers, remarked, bison “naturally conceal being in calf to avoid being hunted as a survival mechanism.”  

The birth of this calf marks a major moment for nature restoration in Britain, though it is not without controversy. Some critics cite the fact that they went extinct in the UK during the last ice age as evidence that they would not be suited to the contemporary British climate. Nevertheless, the appetite for restoration and reintroduction has been growing steadily in the UK and all across Europe in recent years. Part of the argument advanced by rewilding advocates is that the bison would serve as a proxy for another extinct megafauna such as the auroch. 

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Bison: Engineers of the Ecosystem 

The importance of megafauna cannot be overstated from an environmental viewpoint. The loss of the bison and its close relative, the auroch, helped to precipitate the rapid decline in European biodiversity because of their disproportionately large influence on their natural environment relative to their numbers. 

Species such as these are known as ‘keystone species’ and can be seen as ecosystem engineers as they “have been shown to respond to, and create, habitat heterogeneity”. In practice, this means that they help boost diversity by creating ecological niches for other species whether flora or fauna. In the case of bison, this is achieved by creating pathways through dense forest, thereby facilitating the movement of other species and preventing encroachment of colonising plants. Their “heavyweight grazing” is also significant in this regard as it suppresses some areas of vegetation and creates a semi-open woodland-pasture habitat. 

Considering that the encroachment of woody plants into grasslands and savannahs has “increased dramatically” over the last century, thereby reducing range quality for livestock in North American grasslands, shrublands and savannahs, bison have an important role to play in the reversal of this trend. 

The disturbance of the soil after bison have grazed an area also allows for a variety of pioneer plant species to develop. Moreover, activities like mud wallowing open up water holes, further developing the ecological complexity of the ecosystem and generating a wider variety of micro habitats. This process has a direct benefit in helping to hold water on the landscape for longer periods of time, reducing risks from flooding and erosion, while providing a source of drinking water away from streams and ponds. More than this, water holes provide a breeding and hunting ground for amphibians and insects which have born much of the brunt of biomass decline. 

In terms of relation to other species, smaller herbivores like deer can find protection in the bison herd, in much the same way that antelope like impala associate with herds of large grazers like wildebeest and buffalo. The distinct grazing preferences of many herbivores also serves to facilitate the feeding and breeding of others. For instance, bison graze grasses at different heights, generating breeding grounds for ground-nesting bird species, as well as providing a food source by flushing insects from grasslands for waiting birds. Moreover, birds like the Long-Billed Curlew camouflage their nests in patterns that mimic bison droppings, and line their nests with bison fur. Bison provide sustenance to many bird species in the form of ectoparasites like ticks and through the undigested organic matter in their dung. 

We can compare this to the relationship between the grazing species of the African bush, such as wildebeest, and birds like Red-Billed Oxpeckers or Western Cattle Egrets. The former picks ticks from the skin of grazing mammals, feeding itself while cleaning the host. Cattle Egrets meanwhile, follow the herds, consuming the insects disturbed from the grass. 

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Bring Back the Bison

There is no doubt that European habitats are less biodiverse and thus more vulnerable as a direct result of the lack of megafauna present. Indeed, as the Encyclopaedia of Biodiversity states, “the loss of a keystone species will produce a cascade of effects on the diversity and function of the remainder of the ecosystem”. 

One of the simplest tools we have at our disposal to reverse the devastating decline of global biodiversity is to reintroduce large mammals to our landscapes, mammals that naturally should be present in large numbers. As the experiment in a small woodland in Kent has shown, we may be surprised by the speed of the results.

The post The Return of the Bison: Restoring Ecosystems With Keystone Species appeared first on Earth.Org.